This rationale outlines the theoretical and pedagogic underpinings of my design

Clark, Miss Victoria L

English

CogPrints Cognitive Sciences Eprint Archive

Rationale for design of Body Image unit

Cognitive Sciences ePrint Archive

1 
 
Materials Design Rationale for Body Image – Victoria L. Clark  
This paper presents a set of materials to be used with teenagers of differing nationalities attending 
summer camps in England. It consists of a student’s book, teacher’s book and CD. The materials have 
been designed around the topic of ‘body image’. Considering principles of second language 
acquisition (SLA), educational context and pedagogic goals, I will present the underpinning principles 
of the approach I have used to design these materials and include a detailed commentary of the 
individual tasks.  
Principles of Materials Design based on SLA theories 
According to the literature on SLA, there appears to be no consensus between researchers on either 
an over-arching theory of how people learn second languages, or the most effective way of 
designing materials to achieve mastery of the target language (Cook 1996; Tarone & Yule 1989). 
However, I suggest there are several principles to bear in mind when designing materials. First, an 
understanding that learners are individuals with differing aptitudes, attitudes, skills, schematic 
knowledge, motivations and learning styles is crucial (see Skehan 1998) and second, differentiation 
through the inclusion of a variety of learning tasks. 
Approaches of Materials Design 
There are numerous approaches available for consideration when designing materials. For teenaged 
learners of differing nationalities, a multi-dimensional approach that incorporates elements of 
structural, communicative and task-based syllabi should be followed (see Hedge 2000). A hybrid 
approach such as this does not focus on one particular area at the expense of another and caters to 
a wider range of differing needs and preferred learning styles, which can result in increased learning. 
The organising principle is topic-based which create the various dimensions of the unit. The main 
advantage of a topic-based syllabus is that units can be treated as modular and therefore provide 
greater flexibility as chapters can be selected according to students’ needs and interests.  
Educational Context 
According to Tomlinson (1998), materials should target a specified range of learners. Questions that 
need to be answered include those of age, nationality, level and geographical location. These 
learners aged 13-19,  come from all over the world and are sent by their parents to spend two weeks 
in the UK at summer camps to improve their English through a programme of lessons and extra-
curricular activities. Having conducted initial tests, these learners are upper-intermediate level and 
have studied English for approximately 5-6 years.  For this reason, I have focused on the grammatical 
area of infinitives and gerunds, which is a syntactic feature that students will have previously met, 
but not necessarily have mastered. As these students come from a variety of cultures and countries, 
topic focus should lend itself to cross-cultural comparisons. Topics that learners can relate to should 
lead to increased motivation. Furthermore, Hedge (2000:351) suggests successful topics are 
“provocative but not offensive, intellectually stimulating but not too arcane…popular but not bland”. 
Consequently, the topic of Body Image has been selected as it fits the context and fulfils the criterion 
of successful topics for teenaged learners.  
Additionally, materials should be designed to increase motivation. These learners are not always 
highly-motivated and are sometimes resentful of having additional lessons during their summer 
2 
 
break. Not all of them see the value of learning English. However, motivation can be increased by 
the impact materials have on learners. Following Tomlinson’s (1985:7) principles, “materials can 
achieve impact through novelty, variety, attractive presentation, and appealing content”. These 
criterions are exemplified through my topic choice, activity types, use of visuals and a variety of texts 
and classroom management choices as illustrated in the teacher’s book.  
Finally, the design of materials is dictated by what learners need and want to study to achieve their 
personal goals. For these learners, English is a compulsory subject and will be tested on both 
grammatical and skills-based areas to enter into higher education. Important factors which must be 
considered are the needs and expectations of both parents and students. Therefore, there is a 
precarious balance between providing what the parents tend to want (grammar; writing; exam skills), 
what the students generally want (games; music; films; relaxation!) and what students usually need 
(study skills; intensive listening; oral fluency practice). To cater for these needs, tasks have been 
designed to reach these aims.  
Pedagogic goals 
As English is a global language, it is a vehicle or tool for gaining other skills and accessing new 
information especially at upper-intermediate level. Consequently, materials should have a dual-
purpose – it is insufficient to merely focus on learning grammatical structures – the aims of material 
should be to teach life-skills such as racial-tolerance, cultural sensitively and empathy as well as 
pragmatic life-skills such as giving opinions, negotiation, apologising and disagreeing tactfully. 
English should not be taught for English’s sake, but should be used to teach life-skills, morality, and 
being a ‘good’ citizen of the world. Materials should subsequently challenge students’ perceptions 
and inform them about new ideas and viewpoints.   
1. Learner training  
It is commonly acknowledged that an underpinning principle of learner training is a belief that 
learning stratagems of successful students can be classified and taught to unsuccessful learners to 
improve their language ability (Rubin 1987; Wenden 1987 cited in Rees-Miller 1993). Furthermore, 
an awareness of personal learning styles benefits learners’ ability to adapt to different situations 
(Cohen 1990; Ellis & Sinclair 1989; Rubin 1987). Learners need to be trained to become more 
efficient at manipulating language by learning the most effective ways of retaining new lexis and by 
acquiring the necessary skills, which will enable them to read and listen more successfully. 
2. Personalisation  
The material places a strong emphasis on personalisation activities ensuing that the language tasks 
are meaningful to students. According to Scarbrough (1981:84), “the more we can make it possible 
for learners to react in a deep personal manner to learning materials the better the language 
learning that will take place”.  First, personalisation activities engage students directly, which leads 
to better retention of the target language (Rinvolucri & Morgan 2004). Second, it promotes the 
importance of students’ own voices, which can lead to increased confidence. Third, relating one’s 
own experience and ideas is inherently more interesting and motivating than an imaginary person in 
a textbook. Fourth, it acknowledges that students should be actively engaged in the learning process 
3 
 
and not passive recipients of lessons. Fifth, personalisation tasks require learners to produce lexical 
and grammatical structures, through spoken or written discourse.  
Commentary of activity selection 
In line with Tomlinson (1998:9), tasks are “pedagogic and authentic…push learners slightly above 
their level” and are “stimulating…problematic…but achievable”.  
Vocabulary tasks  
New lexis is introduced in a way that focuses on form, meaning, use, lexical chunks (Lewis 1993) and 
most importantly, contextualisation, either through gap-fill sentences (6), or personalisation tasks (3, 
15a). Despite accusations of ‘linguistic imperialism’ (see Phillipson 1992), idioms are included. These 
students study in the UK and they will have contact with native-speakers. Idioms provide interest 
and comparison to L1s, which leads to increased retention.  The idiom ‘pigs might fly’ was 
considered, but rejected due to cultural-sensitivity towards Muslim and Jewish learners, but ‘when 
hell freezes over’ is deemed acceptable as the concept of heaven and hell is not a forbidden topic in 
faiths without these beliefs. Task 2 requires learners to focus on meaning through categorisation, 
and phonological form through intonation patterns. Task 3 recycles idioms by asking students to 
produce them orally in a semi-restricted personalisation activity.  A task on word-building (16) is 
included to raise students’ awareness of word-trees and to encourage dictionary skills.  
Reading  
The text (p. 3), an authentic article from the New York Times has been modified through the deletion 
of a reference to genital mutilation which detracts from the focus of body image. The text acts to 
introduce a different perception of beauty, as a springboard for discussion (9.q.5) and a grammar 
focus (10). The reading tasks emphasise skills successful readers use to comprehend texts quickly. 
Preceding the text, a gap-fill task (6) serves to pre-teach difficult/unknown vocabulary to help 
students concentrate on the content, rather than lexical stumbling-blocks. Two pre-reading tasks 
follow to assist learners to improve exam techniques: A predictive task (7) follows to improve 
students’ ability to draw on existing schematic knowledge, and a skim reading task (8) to improve 
students’ reading speed. The while-reading task (9) encourages students to read carefully and 
extract meaning from the text.   
Grammar focus 
It is commonly understood that meaningful communication is generated by learners solving 
grammar problems interactively (Fotas & Ellis 1991). Asking learners’ to deduce and discover the 
rules for themselves through a true/false + example sentence in pairs (10a) encourages meaningful 
communication and allows learners to take responsibility for their own learning. Task (10c) is an 
awareness-raising of infinitives & gerunds that increases saliency (Chapelle 1998) and enables 
students ‘to notice the gap’ between known and unknown grammatical knowledge (Schmidt and 
Frota 1986). 
 
 
4 
 
Speaking 
In response to students’ need to focus on fluency, rather than accuracy, and to maximise 
communication, many discussion tasks are included. A strong emphasis is placed on personalisation 
activities, where students are asked to respond and discuss their own opinions with partners (1, 3, 4, 
12, 15a, 17), which serves to promote students’ confidence by giving them chance to express their 
opinions and to increase student-talking-time. Discussion tasks also help to prepare learners’ for 
listening (4, 15a) tasks by activating their schematic knowledge and allow students’ to respond to 
what they have read or heard (9.q.5, 17). There are also integrated pronunciation tasks to improve 
learners’ spoken ability (2, 16).  
Listening 
The listening activities include an interview and a pop song to increase students’ motivation and 
interest. Both listening texts are authentic, which students at this level should be able to cope with.  
The aims are to improve learners’ ability to predict (4, 15a), and listen for specific information in a 
question-answer task (5) and in a gap-fill activity (15b), which mirrors listening components of 
examinations. The tasks also help to scaffold learners as teachers can play the recording twice if 
necessary.  
Writing  
The focus of the writing task is to use language creatively within the context of story-writing (13). 
The free-writing task encourages students to develop their own voice and, make vocabulary more 
memorable through a personalised and contextualised activity. There is also a writing extension task 
that can be found in the teachers’ book. The answers in the discussion tasks can be used as writing 
activities, depending whether students need to be “stirred” or “settled” (Maclellen 1987).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5 
 
References:  
Chapelle, C. (1998) Construct definition and validity inquiry in SLA research. In Bachman, L. F. and
 Cohen, A. D., editors, Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing r
 esearch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 32-70. 
Cohen, A. (1990) Studying second language learning strategies: how do we get the information?
 Applied Linguistics 5/2, 131-146 
Cook, V. (1996) Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. New Jersey:
 Lawrence Erlbaum 
Ellis, G. & Sinclair, B. (1989) Learning to Learn English: a course in learner training. Cambridge:
 Cambridge University Press 
Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  
Lewis, M. (1993) The Lexical Approach. Language Teaching Publications 
Maclellen, S. (1987) ‘Integrating lesson planning and classroom management.’ ELT Journal 41/3: 193
 7 
Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (2004) Vocabulary. Pilgrims.  
Phillipson, R. (1992) ‘Linguistic imperialism: a conspiracy, or a conspiracy of silence?’ Language
 Planning  
Rees-Miller, J. (1993) ‘A critical appraisal of learner training: theoretical basis and teaching
 implications’.  TESOL QUARTERLY 27:4 679-697. 
Rubin, J. (1987) Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology. In A.
 Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 15-30). Prentice Hall. 
Schmidt, R. and Frota, S. (1986) 'Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: a case
 study of an adult learner of Portuguese' in R. Day (ed.). 
Skehan, P. (1986) Cluster analysis and the identification of learner types. In V. Cook (Ed.).
 Experimental Approaches to Second Language Acquisition 
Tarone, E. & Yule, G. (1989) Focus on the language learner. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
Tomlinson, B. (1998) Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
 Press. 
Wenden, A. (1987) Metacognition: An expanded view on the cognitive abilities of L2 learners.
 Language Learning, 37 (4), 573-594 
 
 
 
6 
 
 


Construct definition and validity inquiry in SLA research.

Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: a case study of an adult learner of Portuguese'

Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology. In

Linguistic imperialism: a conspiracy, or a conspiracy of silence?’ Language Planning Rees-Miller,

Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge:

Metacognition: An expanded view on the cognitive abilities of L2 learners.

Studying second language learning strategies: how do we get the information?

The Lexical Approach. Language Teaching Publications Maclellen, S.

Rationale for design of Body Image unit

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

CogPrints Cognitive Sciences Eprint Archive

Cognitive Sciences ePrint Archive