Image segmentation plays an important role in computer vision and human scene perception. Image oversegmentation is a common technique to overcome the problem of managing the high number of pixels and the reasoning among them. Specifically, a local and coherent cluster that contains a statistically homogeneous region is denoted as a superpixel. In this paper we propose a novel algorithm that segments an image into superpixels employing a new kind of shape centered feature which serve as a seed points for image segmentation, based on Gradient Vector Flow fields (GVF) [14]. The features are located at image locations with salient symmetry. We compare our algorithm to state-of-the-art superpixel algorithms and demonstrate a performance increase on the standard Berkeley Segmentation Dataset

Bülthoff, H.

Curio, C.

Engel, D.

Siegwart, R.

Spinello, L.

Triebel, R.

English

Image segmentation plays an important role in computer
vision and human scene perception. Image oversegmentation
is a common technique to overcome the problem
of managing the high number of pixels and the reasoning
among them. Specifically, a local and coherent cluster that
contains a statistically homogeneous region is denoted as
a superpixel. In this paper we propose a novel algorithm
that segments an image into superpixels employing a new
kind of shape centered feature which serve as a seed points
for image segmentation, based on Gradient Vector Flow
fields (GVF) [14]. The features are located at image locations
with salient symmetry. We compare our algorithm
to state-of-the-art superpixel algorithms and demonstrate a
performance increase on the standard Berkeley Segmentation
Dataset

Bülthoff, H.H.

Max Planck Society eDoc Server

Medial Features for Superpixel Segmentation

MPG.PuRe

Medial Features for Superpixel SegmentationDavid Engel∗ Luciano Spinello† Rudolph Triebel† Roland Siegwart†Heinrich H. Bülthoff∗ Cristóbal Curio∗∗Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics †Autonomous Systems Lab, ETH ZürichSpemannstr. 38, Tübingen, Germany Tannenstrasse 3, Zürich, Switzerlandfirstname.lastname@tuebingen.mpg.de firstname.lastname@mavt.ethz.chAbstractImage segmentation plays an important role in computervision and human scene perception. Image oversegmen-tation is a common technique to overcome the problemof managing the high number of pixels and the reasoningamong them. Specifically, a local and coherent cluster thatcontains a statistically homogeneous region is denoted asa superpixel. In this paper we propose a novel algorithmthat segments an image into superpixels employing a newkind of shape centered feature which serve as a seed pointsfor image segmentation, based on Gradient Vector Flowfields (GVF) [14]. The features are located at image lo-cations with salient symmetry. We compare our algorithmto state-of-the-art superpixel algorithms and demonstrate aperformance increase on the standard Berkeley Segmenta-tion Dataset.1 IntroductionImage segmentation plays an important role in computervision and human perception. This procedure associates acoherent and meaningful label to each pixel of an image.An image segmentation technique that overcomes two wellknown issues in the literature is needed: pixels are not nat-ural entities but are a consequence of the quantized repre-sentation of images and the number of pixels grows quicklywith respect to the resolution. Superpixel techniques areoversegmentation methods that address this problem. A su-perpixel is a local and coherent cluster that contains a statis-tically homogeneous image region. Such a method was in-troduced by Ren and Malik [10] who employ a NormalizedCut criterion [12] to recursively partition an image usingcontour and texture cues. Another method has been pro-posed by Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [4] using an ef-ficient graph based representation of local neighborhoods.Several applications that use superpixels exist. Recent note-worthy works include depth from single images [11], hu-man pose estimation [8] and general scene understanding[5].In this paper we present a novel superpixel segmentationmethodology that makes use of a new kind of medial featuretransform [3]. The transform has maximum responses atimage locations of high symmetry and carries the notion ofshape-centered medial features (cf. [1]). The novelty of ourproposed algorithm is that it exploits the properties of thewell known Gradient Vector Flow (GVF) field proposed byXu and Prince [14]. GVF basically yields long ranging im-age force vector fields that has been useful in many applica-tions by attracting contours even into areas of strong bound-ary concavities and in the presence of noise in the originalimage. We exploit the robustly derived long ranging imageforces represented by a vector field, by detecting singular-ities in them as seeds for image segmentation. The medialfeatures that are retrieved in our context with the help of theGVF field’s singularities can be used to compress regionalshape information to a few informative image points fromwhich the image even could be reconstructed [13].To evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm,we employ the Berkeley Segmentation Dataset [6] and com-pare the performance of our algorithm to the approaches ofFelzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [4] and Ren and Malik [10].The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2.1 we de-scribe the applied Medial Feature transform and introducean extension to oversegmentation in Section 2.2. In Section3 we report on our evaluation and we conclude this work inSection 4.2 MethodsTo give a better intuition on the features used in our seg-mentation algorithm we first outline the computation of theGVF field that we operate on. The overall pipeline for su-perpixel segmentation is visualized in Figure 1.2.1 Medial FeaturesThe GVF [14] is the vector field V (p) = [u(p), v(p)]Tthat minimizes the cost function E , where p = (x, y) is apoint in the image I:E =∫ ∫g (|∇f |) |V −∇f |2︸ ︷︷ ︸data term+h (|∇f |)∇2V︸ ︷︷ ︸smoothing termdxdyThis cost function is subject to the iterative optimiza-tion of V until convergence and is obtained with variationalcalculus. The data term guarantees stability of the vectorfield V (p) near an edge map f whereas the second termis responsible for the suppression of spurious edges andthe propagation of orientation information across the im-age. The optimization aims to accomplish the two goals ofpreserving the orientation information at the gradients andcreating a smooth flow field across the image. The func-tions g and h determine the trade off between these twoconflicting goals. They are designed to be complementary,enforcing stricter adherence to the underlying edge map atlocations of high gradient magnitude and smoothness wherethe magnitude is low. For our purposes we followed the im-plementation of [14] using a constant for h = 0.12 and fordata function g = |∇f |2.Figure 1: Overview of the processing pipeline for medial feature oversegmentation. The GVF field V is computed on theedge map. After normalization of V and the computation of the flux flow F the seeds are obtained by thresholding with θ.Starting from the seeds the watershed is computed using F as a height map.Figure 2: a) Original image b) Flux flow field F c) Influence of the thresholding parameter θ for the seeding on the resultingsuperpixel segmentations. From left to right parameter is set to (0.2, 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.4). Top: F > θ, Bottom: Resultingoversegmentation.We normalize the solution to V (p) at each image lo-cation resulting in VN (p). Our assumption is that VN (p)closely approximates the gradient of the L2-norm dis-tance function, ∇D(p), with ∇D(p) ≈ VN (p) =V (p)/‖V (p)‖ ∀p. Given that, we can locate shock loci inVN (p), which we use as seeds for segmentation as follows.Pizer et al [9] suggest a singularity detection frameworkbased the divergence of VN yielding the flux flowdiv VN = F (VN (p)) =∮〈VN ,N〉 dsArea, (1)where N denote the normals on a ring with diameter of7 pixels through which the flux flow F is computed. Thecomputation of this ring integral at each point in the im-age can be implemented for the two components of VN astwo convolutions with two precomputed kernels containingthe two normal vector components of that ring, respectively.This flux is further used as seeds for oversegmentation de-scribed as follows.2.2 Oversegmentation using Medial FeaturesThe idea behind oversegmentation algorithms is to findand group together regions which are uniform in their ap-pearance. The medial features described above provide ameans to this end by being formed at the centers of regionsof uniform appearance. We take advantage of the points ofhigh symmetry denoted by the medial features as seeds forthe oversegmentation. To obtain these seeds we thresholdthe flux flow field F with θ and assign unique labels to theconnected areas. The GVF field is the first step of calcu-lating the medial features and operates on an edge imagef . Choosing the right edge detector to create f is task de-pendent. Evaluations showed the thresholded Sobel edgeoperator performs best in the context of oversegmentation.More intricate edge detectors such as Canny [2] suppressfine edge details which is not desirable for our application,since creating too many segments is more desirable thanprematurely merging segments belonging to two differentregions. Furthermore, the GVF will eliminate spurious edgepixels that are potentially created by the less complex edgedetector, allowing a stable formation of the seeds for theoversegmentation. An example of the seed structure afterthresholding the medial features is shown in Figure 3 (mid-dle). To avoid problems in large uniform areas the GVFshould have fully converged over the image.To complete the oversegmentation we need to assign theremaining pixels to coherent regions. To this end we applythe watershed algorithm proposed by [7] for which efficientimplementations are available. This operates on a heightmap and simulates successive flooding of the relief, start-ing from the minima of the image. Borders or ’watersheds’are formed where the rising water of two different basinsmeet. As a height map we use the flux flow image F de-scribed above (cf. Figure 2b). As an outcome of the GVFoptimization process, F preserves the salient edge informa-tion (local minima, negative) complementary to the formedsymmetries (local maxima, positive). Thus, this approachFigure 3: Seeds and segmentation. From left to right: original images, GVF based seeds obtained by thresholding the fluxflow F with θ and the watershed segmentation. The color values denote different labels of the seeds and segments.preserves the edge structure of the original image which iscritical for an oversegmentation algorithm. This preserva-tion of the underlying edge structure is also an advantageover a simple creation of a Voronoi diagram extended fromthe seeds. A resulting segmentation can be seen in Figure 3(right).3 EvaluationWe compare our oversegmentation method with twostate-of-the-art approaches. The first one is an extensionof the superpixel algorithm proposed by Felzenszwalb andHuttenlocher [4] and the second one is the method proposedby Ren and Malik [10], which is based on normalized graphcuts. As a baseline method we show the performance of astandard watershed method computed on Canny edge mapswithout initialization. We measure the performance of theoversegmentation algorithms on the Berkeley SegmentationDataset [6], which contains 300 images (200 in the trainingdata set and 100 in the test set) with several human drawnsegmentations for each image. Accordingly, the segmenta-tions are very different among subjects with the number ofsegments per image reaching from 5 to more than 30. Fur-thermore, human observers use their vast experience withnatural images and their knowledge of the image semanticsfor segmentation both of which are not available to bottom-up segmentation algorithms. Thus, reconstructing a seg-mentation by humans is a very difficult challenge.Superpixel algorithms do not aim at fully explaining hu-man segmentations but provide a starting point for higherlevel segmentation algorithms. However, should the super-pixel segmentation already cross borders between human-made segments an algorithm operating on the oversegmen-tation would have to fail. Thus, we have to use a perfor-mance measure which tells us how well a higher-level al-gorithm could be able to reconstruct the human segmen-tation. Consequently, our performance measure penalizessegments of the oversegmentation that cross the borders ofthe target shape. On the other hand, it is desirable to end upwith a small number of segments to reduce the complexityof the merging problem. Based on these observations weformulated the following performance measureMedial Feature Superpixel 0.88Ren et al. [10] 0.86Felzenszwalb et al. [4] 0.83Watershed on Distance Transform 0.79Table 1: Performance of the algorithms.P =N∑i=1Mi∑j=1Ŝi,jN∑i=1MiSi. (2)This is computed over N images where Mi denotes thenumber of human segmentations of image i in the dataset.Si is the number of segments the algorithm produced on im-age i while Ŝi,j is the number of segments produced by thesuperpixel algorithm that lie inside only one segment, j, ofthe human created segmentation of image i. To compensatefor some noise and uncertainty in the human segmentationsthe criterion for Ŝi,j was relaxed so that only 95% of a su-perpixel had to be consistent with the human segmentation.This performance measure indicates the percentage ofsegments that do not cross a border of the segmentationsdrawn by the human normalized against the number of seg-ments produced by the oversegmentation algorithm. Takingthe mean of these values across all test images and all hu-man segmentations for each of the images gives the result-ing performance measures reported in Table 1.All three algorithms possess free parameters that influ-ence the properties and number of created superpixels (e.g.parameter k from [10] or the threshold θ for the seeding inour algorithm). These parameters were optimized by a gridsearch for the maximum of the performance measure usingthe images from the training set of the Berkeley Segmenta-tion Dataset. As a baseline method we employed a standardwatershed algorithm applied to the distance transformationof a Canny edge image.The results of this performance measure indicate that theproposed medial feature segmentation yields better resultsFigure 4: Influence of the thresholding parameter θ on thenumber of generated superpixels (averaged over all imagesin the Berkeley Segmentation Dataset).than the other algorithms and is substantially better thana baseline method. Other performance measures (such asconservation of human segmentation boundaries) are pos-sible and might yield different results. However, we feelthat the measure chosen here is appropriate since it pro-vides an indicator for how useful the created superpixelswill be for algorithms operating on them. The algorithm byFelzenszwalb and Huttenlocher creates non-smooth borderswhich can be suboptimal for this performance measure. Thesuperpixel algorithm based on normalized graph cuts pro-duces smooth segment boundaries but as it produces a fixednumber of segments (the number of superpixels k was opti-mized using the training data set) it can not be optimal for aheterogeneous image set.The average number of superpixels generated by our al-gorithm depends strongly on the threshold parameter θ ascan be seen in Figure 4. For large values of θ only few dis-tinct symmetry points are above the threshold and remainas seeds resulting in a small number of large segments. Asthe threshold becomes smaller more seeds are generated re-sulting in higher number of starting areas for the watershedalgorithm and consequently in a finer superpixel segmen-tation. However, the seed regions begin to merge for verysmall values of θ as can be seen in the leftmost image of Fig-ure 2c, resulting in a decreased number of segments. Thelocation of the maximum depends on the properties of theunderlying image.The average runtime of the medial feature oversegmen-tation per image is 2.6 seconds in the current Matlab/C-Meximplementation, which is about as fast as the segmentationalgorithm proposed by Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher andmuch faster than the oversegmentation based on graph cuts.However, the largest portion of this time is taken by theiterative computation of the GVF field. The iterative op-timization of the GVF is well parallelizable and there arenow GPU implementations available which will further re-duce the computation time.4 Conclusion and OutlookIn this paper we presented a novel way of image over-segmentation based on medial features. The medial featuresare computed by applying a divergence operator to the GVFfield and are formed at points of high symmetry and aretherefore well suited as seeds for a segmentation approachbased on the watershed algorithm. Using such medial fea-tures allows our algorithm to be very efficient and offersmany desirable properties such as stability against noise.We compared our algorithm to two state-of-the-art algo-rithms on the Berkeley Segmentation dataset. We showedthat our method can provide a basis for higher level algo-rithms by producing a high percentage of segments that areconsistent with segments found by human observers.We plan to employ a GPU implementation of the GVFto obtain substantial speedups for the oversegmentation. Asany other superpixel algorithm our algorithm offers the op-portunity for computer vision frameworks to merge the cre-ated segments to arrive at final figure-ground segmentationof objects. Using medial features in large uniform areascan slow the superpixel segmentation down since it takesthe GVF many iterations to converge in such regions. Toaddress this problem we plan to integrate medial featuresextracted along a pyramid of scales to create the seeds forthe segmentation.AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by EU-Project BACS FP6-IST-027140 and DFG Perceptual Graphics.References[1] H. Blum. A transformation for extracting new descriptors ofshape. In W. Wathen-Dunn, editor, Models for the Percep-tion of Speech and Visual Form, pages 363–380, Washington,DC, USA, 1967. MIT Press.[2] F. J. Canny. A Computational Approach to Edge Detection.IEEE-PAMI, 8(6):679–698, 1986.[3] D. Engel and C. Curio. Scale-invariant medial features basedon gradient vector flow fields. In ICPR, December 2008.[4] P. Felzenszwalb and D. Huttenlocher. Efficient graph-basedimage segmentation. Int. J. of Computer Vision, 59(2):167–181, 2004.[5] D. Hoiem, A. Efros, and M. Hebert. Closing the loop onscene interpretation. In CVPR), 2008.[6] D. Martin, C. Fowlkes, D. Tal, and J. Malik. A databaseof human segmented natural images and its application toevaluating segmentation algorithms and measuring ecologi-cal statistics. In ICCV, volume 2, pages 416–423, July 2001.[7] F. Meyer. Topographic distance and watershed lines. SignalProcessing, 38(1):113–125, 1994.[8] G. Mori, X. Ren, A. Efros, and J. Malik. Recovering humanbody configurations: combining segmentation and recogni-tion. In CVPR, volume 2, pages 326–333, 2004.[9] S. Pizer, K. Siddiqi, G. Szekely, and S. Zucker. Multiscalemedial loci and their properties. Int. J. of Computer Vision,55(2-3):155–179, 2003.[10] X. Ren and J. Malik. Learning a classification model forsegmentation. In ICCV, 2003.[11] A. Saxena, S. H. Chung, and A. Y. Ng. 3-d depth reconstruc-tion from a single still image. Int. J. of Computer Vision,2007.[12] J. Shi and J. Malik. Normalized cuts and image segmenta-tion. PAMI, 22:888–905, 2000.[13] A. Tamrakar and B. Kimia. Medial visual fragments as anintermediate image representation for segmentation and per-ceptual grouping. In Proc. of the Conference on ComputerVision and Pattern Recognition Workshop, volume 4, page 47,Washington, DC, USA, 2004. IEEE Computer Society.[14] C. Xu and J. Prince. Snakes, shapes, and gradient vectorflow. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, 7:359–369,1998.Figure 5: Example image from the Berkeley Segmentation Dataset (left) and two human segmentation results (middle, right).Figure 6: Experimental result on the example image from Figure 5. From left to right: segmentation obtained by superpixelalgorithm after [4], segmentation obtained by superpixel algorithm after [10] and the oversegmentation result of our medialfeature based approach.

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Medial Features for Superpixel Segmentation

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