Sensitivity to timing in interaction was assessed in mother-infant interaction. In Study 1, three-month-old infants were presented with an image of their mother interacting with them on television, which was either live or temporally delayed by 1 second. Infants detected the temporal delay and were more attentive when the mother was presented live compared to delayed by 1 second. In Study 2, mothers interacted with an image of their three-month-old infant, which was either live or temporally delayed by 1 second. Mothers did not respond to a 1-second delay in their infants' behavior. In Study 3 and 4, the results were replicated with six-month-old infants

Henning, Anne

Striano, Tricia

English

CogPrints Cognitive Sciences Eprint Archive

Early sensitivity to interpersonal timing

Sensitivity to timing in interaction was assessed in mother-infant interaction. In Study 1, three-month-old infants were presented with an image of their mother interacting with them on television, which was either live or temporally delayed by 1 second. Infants detected the temporal delay and were more attentive when the mother was presented live compared to delayed by 1 second. In Study 2, mothers interacted with an image of their three-month-old infant, which was either live or temporally delayed by 1 second. Mothers did not respond to a 1- second delay in their infants' behavior. In Study 3 and 4, the results were replicated with six-month-old infants

Henning, A.

Striano, T.

MPG.PuRe

Cognitive Sciences ePrint Archive

Early sensitivity to interpersonal timing 
 
Anne Henning 
Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary 
Anthropology 
Cultural Ontogeny Department 
Deutscher Platz, 6 
04103 Leipzig 
henning@eva.mpg.de 
Tricia Striano 
Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary 
Anthropology 
Cultural Ontogeny Department 
Deutscher Platz, 6 
04103 Leipzig 
Abstract 
 
  Sensitivity to timing in interaction was assessed in 
mother-infant interaction.  In Study 1, three-month-
old infants were presented with an image of their 
mother interacting with them on television, which 
was either live or temporally delayed by 1 second.  
Infants detected the temporal delay and were more 
attentive when the mother was presented live 
compared to delayed by 1 second.  In Study 2, 
mothers interacted with an image of their three-
month-old infant, which was either live or temporally 
delayed by 1 second.  Mothers did not respond to a 1-
second delay in their infants' behavior.  In Study 3 
and 4, the results were replicated with six-month-old 
infants.  
 
1. Introduction 
 
Interpersonal timing is a crucial aspect of human 
communication and intersubjectivity.  Temporal 
coordination of behavior, i.e., changes in the timing of one 
individual's behavior in relation to timing of another’s 
behavior, has been called the "bedrock of all social 
interaction" (Crown, Feldstein, Jasnow, Beebe, & Jaffe, 
2002). 
  In early caregiver-infant interactions interpersonal timing 
is likely essential for mutual attunement (Rochat & Striano, 
1999).  Parental responses generally occur within 1-2 
seconds after the infants' behavior (e.g., Keller, Lohaus, 
Völker, Cappenberg, & Chasiotis, 1999). Interestingly, this 
timing falls within the 3-second time interval that infants 
require to detect a contingent relation between their own 
actions and an outcome (Watson, 1967). 
  Temporal contingency is likely an independent component 
of parenting behavior, i.e., promptness of maternal behavior 
is not associated with warmth and affection (Keller et al., 
1999).  However, in prior research on infant sensitivity to 
social contingencies in interaction, timing of responses has 
never been assessed alone (e.g., Murray & Trevarthen, 
1985; Nadel, Carchon, Kervella, Marcelli, & Réserbat-
Plantey, 1999).  
  In the present series of studies, therefore, we assessed 
three- and six-month-old infants' and caregivers' sensitivity 
to interpersonal timing by using a new paradigm, in which 
only the timing of responses was manipulated1. 
 
2. Method 
 
A double closed-circuit color monitor system was built 
similar to that used by Murray and Trevarthen (1985).  
Mothers and infants interacted over a double video system 
in real time and temporal delays of 1 second were 
implemented within the on-going interaction.  The 
caregiver’s image was transmitted to the infants’ monitor 
and vice versa.  A steel frame supported a TV monitor 
facing down. The image was reflected onto a one-way 
mirror, positioned diagonally in the steel frame and 
reflecting the partner's video image at eye level.  Digital 
video cameras filming the interaction were positioned at eye 
level behind the mirrors so as to enable eye contact.  The 4-
minute interaction was separated into two 2-minute 
seamless segments.  For 2 minutes the dyad interacted in 
real time (Live condition), and for 2 minutes the image and 
voice of one partner was temporally delayed (Delay 
condition).  Conditions were counterbalanced.  The audio 
delay was consistent with the image in the delay condition.  
In Study 1 and 3, three- and six-month-old infants interacted 
with an image of their caregiver, which was live or delayed 
by 1 second (Ns = 34 and 29 respectively).  In Study 2 and 
4, caregivers interacted with an image of their 3- or 6-
month-old infant, which was live or delayed by 1 second 
(Ns = 33 and 26 respectively).  
 
3. Results and Discussion 
 
The amount of time the partners gazed, smiled and 
vocalized to each other was coded.  General Linear Mixed 
                                                 
1The presented data is currently submitted for publication (Striano, 
Henning, & Stahl). 
145
In Berthouze, L., Kozima, H., Prince, C. G., Sandini, G., Stojanov, G., Metta, G., and Balkenius, C. (Eds.)
Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Epigenetic Robotics
Lund University Cognitive Studies, 117, ISBN 91-974741-3-4
Model analyses were applied to assess whether infants' 
behavior (Study 1 and 3) varied in relation to the timing of 
maternal responses, independent of maternal behavior.  
Similarly, in Study 2 and 4, we assessed whether mother's 
behavior varied in relation to the timing of infant responses, 
independent of infant behavior.  Infant gender and order of 
conditions did not yield any significant main effect in any of 
the GLMMs performed. 
  When controlling for maternal behavior, infant gazing 
significantly differed as a function of condition, both at 
three months, F (1, 34.3) = 5.08, p = .031, and at six 
months: F (1, 27.0) = 4.38, p = .046 (Study 1 and 3).  
Infants were reliably more attentive to their mothers' image 
when she was interacting live compared to when she was 
delayed by 1 second (Live: M = 57.9%; Delay: M = 41.9%).  
These findings suggest that infants were sensitive to the 1-
second delay implemented in the face-to-face interaction 
during the delay condition. 
  When controlling for infant behavior, at both ages, 
maternal behavior did not differ between conditions, ps > 
.08 (Study 2 and 4).  These results suggest that mothers 
adjusted to their infants’ behavior without being perturbed 
by its temporal delay.  This explanation is supported by 
several significant relations found between infant and 
maternal behaviors that point to a mutual attunement 
between mother and infant (e.g., Stern, 1985). 
  Whereas 3- and 6-month-olds were more attentive when 
mothers were presented live compared to delayed by 1 
second, at both ages infant smiling and vocalizing did not 
differ between conditions, ps > .16.  Given that only the 
timing of maternal responses was manipulated while 
maintaining all other aspects of contingency, it is likely that 
this 1-second delay did not influence affective attunement 
between the dyad (Stern, 1985). Several significant relations 
found between infant and maternal behavior support this 
explanation. 
  These results support and extend prior findings of Murray 
and Trevarthen (1985) and Nadel et al. (1999)2, suggesting 
that by three months of age infants are not only sensitive to 
overall interpersonal contingency but also to the timing of 
social interaction.  Our findings further suggest that while 
infants are sensitive to changes in interpersonal timing, 
mothers provide prompt responses (e.g. Keller et al., 1999) 
and adjust to temporal delays in infant behavior 
  In addition to establishing a sense of reciprocity, timing 
may provide cues about the referential aspects of 
communicative signals that are essential in understanding 
others’ intentions (Baldwin, 1993; Tomasello, 1999).  
Timing might thus be an integral part of the detection of 
intentional relations associated with the detection of human 
agency (Johnson, Booth, & O'Hearn, 2001), language 
(Clark, 1996), and Theory of Mind (Blakemore et al., 2003). 
  All learning systems make assumptions on timing 
regarding the establishment of units and relatedness 
                                                 
2Note that Murray and Trevarthen (1985) and Nadel et al. (1999) 
tested 2-month-olds. 
between units in sensory data.  Developmental research on 
infant detection of interpersonal timing could thus be 
relevant to robotic systems that a) learn through interaction, 
or b) learn to communicate with other robots or humans, 
especially with regard to turn-taking behavior.  Timing 
provides a cue to contingent relatedness and might therefore 
be used to detect the responsive nature of others’ behavior 
onto one’s own, i.e. to establish when to consider others’ 
behavior as feedback onto one’s own. 
 
References 
 
  Baldwin, D. A. (1993). Early referential understanding: 
Infants’ ability to recognize referential acts for what 
they are. Developmental Psychology, 29, 832-843. 
  Blakemore, S.-J., Boyer, P., Pachot-Clouard, M., Meltzoff, 
A., Segebarth, C., & Decety, J. (2003). The detection 
of contingency and animacy from simple animations in 
the human brain. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 837-844. 
  Clark, H. (1996). Using Language. Cambridge: Cambridge 
University Press. 
  Crown, C. L., Feldstein, S., Jasnow, M. D., Beebe, B., & 
Jaffe, J. (2002). The cross-modal coordination of 
interpersonal timing: Six-week-olds infants' gaze with 
adults' vocal behavior. Journal of Psycholinguistic 
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  Johnson, S. C., Booth, A., & O'Hearn, K. (2001). Inferring 
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  Keller, H., Lohaus, A., Völker, S., Cappenberg, M., & 
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independent component of parenting behavior. Child 
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  Murray, L., & Trevarthen, C. (1985). Emotional 
regulations of interactions between two-month-olds 
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  Nadel, J., Carchon, I., Kervella, C., Marcelli, D., & 
Réserbat-Plantey, D. (1999). Expectancies for social 
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  Rochat, P., & Striano, T. (1999). Social-cognitive 
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  Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. 
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146


Early referential understanding: Infants’ ability to recognize referential acts for what they are.

Emotional regulations of interactions between two-month-olds and their mothers. In

Expectancies for social contingency in 2-month-olds.

Inferring the goals of a nonhuman agent.

Social-cognitive development in the first year. In

Temporal contingency as an independent component of parenting behavior.

The cross-modal coordination of interpersonal timing: Six-week-olds infants' gaze with adults' vocal behavior.

The detection of contingency and animacy from simple animations in the human brain.

The interpersonal world of the infant.

Using Language. Cambridge:

Early sensitivity to interpersonal timing

Abstract

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