Cherry, Simon R

Phelps, Michael

Sorenson, James

CERN Document Server

SIMON R . CHERRY, PH.D .ProfessorDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of California-DavisDavis, CaliforniaJAMES A . SORENSON, PH.D .Emeritus Professor of Medical PhysicsUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WisconsinMICHAEL E . PHELPS, PH . D .Norton Simon ProfessorChair, Department of Molecular and Medical PharmacologyDirector, Center for Molecular MedicineDirector, Crump Institute for Molecular ImagingDavid Geffen School of Medicine, UCLALos Angeles, CaliforniaPhysicsin NuclearMedicinethird editionSAUNDERS:4r : Imprint ofElsevierWhat Is Nuclear Medicine?	1 G. Positron (R+) and (R+, ~,)Decay 25A. Fundamental Concepts 1 H. Competitive R+ and EC Decay 27B. The Power of Nuclear Medicine 1 I, Decay by a Emission and by NuclearC. Historical Overview 2 Fission 2'7D. Current Practice of Nuclear J. Decay Modes and the Line ofMedicine 3 Stability 28E. The Role of Physics in Nuclear K. Sources of Information onMedicine 6Radionuclides 30Basic Atomic andNuclear Physics 7(1) Decay of Radioactivity 31A. Quantities and Units 71 . Types of Quantities and Units 7 A. Activity 312 . Mass and Energy Units 7 1 . The Decay Constant 31B. Radiation 8 2. Definition and Units of Activity 31C. Atoms 9 B. Exponential Decay 321 . Composition and Structure 9 1 . The Decay Factor 322 . Electron Binding Energies and 2 . Half-Life 33Energy Levels 10 3 . Average Lifetime 333 . Atomic Emissions 11 C. Methods for Determining DecayD. The Nucleus 13 Factors 341 . Composition 13 1 . Tables of Decay Factors 342 . Terminology and Notation 14 2 . Pocket Calculators 353 . Nuclear Families 14 3 . Graphic Methods 354 . Forces and Energy Levels within the D . Image-Frame Decay Corrections 36Nucleus 14 E. Specific Activity 385 . Nuclear Emissions 16 F . Decay of a Mixed Radionuclide6 . Nuclear Binding Energy 16 Sample 407 . Characteristics of Stable Nuclei 16G. Parent-Daughter Decay 411 . The Bateman Equations 41Modes of Radioactive 2 . Secular Equilibrium 41Decay 19 3 . Transient Equilibrium 414 . No Equilibrium 43A. General Concepts 19B . Chemistry and Radioactivity 19C. Decay by R_ Emission 20 Radionuclide andD. Decay by (0-, ,y) Emission 22RadiopharmaceuticalE . Isomeric Transition (IT) and Internal Production 45Conversion (IC) 23F . Electron Capture (EC) and (EC, y) A. Reactor-Produced Radionuclides 45Decay 24 1 . Reactor Principles 45viii . . . PHYSICS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE2. Fission Fragments 463 . Neutron Activation 48B. Accelerator-ProducedRadionuclides 491 . Charged-Particle Accelerators	492. Cyclotron Principles 493. Cyclotron-ProducedRadionuclides 51C. Radionuclide Generators 52D. Equations for RadionuclideProduction 551 . Activation Cross Sections 552 . Activation Rates 553 . Buildup and Decay of Activity 57E . Radionuclides for NuclearMedicine 581 . General Considerations 582 . Specific Considerations 59F . RadiopharmaceuticalPreparation 601 . General Considerations 602 . Labeling Strategies 613 . Technetium 99m-LabeledRadiopharmaceuticals 624 . Radiopharmaceuticals Labeled withPositron Emitters 625 . Radiopharmaceuticals for TherapyApplications 626 . Radiopharmaceuticals in ClinicalNuclear Medicine 63Interaction of Radiationwith Matter 65A. Interactions of Charged Particles withMatter 651 . Charged-Particle InteractionMechanisms 652 . Collisional Versus RadiationLosses 673 . Charged-Particle Tracks 684 . Deposition of Energy Along aCharged-Particle Track 695 . The Cerenkov Effect 71B . Charged-Particle Ranges 721 . Alpha Particles 722 . Beta Particles and Electrons 74C. Passage of High-Energy Photonsthrough Matter 761 . Photon Interaction Mechanisms 762 . The Photoelectric Effect 773 . Compton Scattering 774. Pair Production 795 . Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering 806 . Deposition of Photon Energy inMatter 80D. Attenuation of Photon Beams 801 . Attenuation Coefficients 802 . Thick Absorbers, Narrow-BeamGeometry 843 . Thick Absorbers, Broad-BeamGeometry 864. Polyenergetic Sources 88A. Gas-Filled Detectors 891 . Basic Principles 892 . Ionization Chambers 893 . Proportional Counters 934. Geiger-Muller Counters 94B . Semiconductor Detectors 98C. Scintillation Detectors 1001 . Basic Principles 1002 . Photomultiplier Tubes 1013 . Inorganic Scintillators 1034. Organic Liquid Scintillators 106Radiation Detectors 89Electronic Instrumentationfor Radiation DetectionSystems 109A. Preamplifiers 109B . Amplifiers 1121 . Amplification and Pulse-ShapingFunctions 1122 . Resistor-Capacitor Shaping 1133 . Baseline Shift and Pulse Pile-up 114C. Pulse-Height Analyzers 1151 . Basic Functions 1152 . Single-Channel Analyzers 1153 . Timing Methods 1174 . Multichannel Analyzers 117D. Time-to-Amplitude Converters 121E . Digital Counters and Rate Meters 1211 . Scalers, Timers, and Counters 1212 . Analog Rate Meters 123F . Coincidence Units 124G. High-Voltage Power Supplies 125H. Nuclear Instrument Modules 126I . Cathode Ray Tube 1261 . Electron Gun 1262 . Deflection Plates 1273 . Phosphor-Coated DisplayScreens 1284 . Focus and BrightnessControls 1285 . Color Cathode Ray Tubes 128J. Oscilloscopes	129 1 . Semiconductor DetectorK. Computer Monitors 129 Spectrometers 1602 . Liquid ScintillationSpectrometry 1623 . Proportional CounterSpectrometers 163Nuclear Counting Statistics 131A. Types of MeasurementError 131B . Nuclear Counting Statistics 1321 . The Poisson Distribution 1322 . The Standard Deviation 1343 . The Gaussian Distribution 134 A. Detection Efficiency 165C. Propagation of Errors 135 1 . Components of Detection1 . Sums and Differences 135 Efficiency 1652 . Constant Multipliers 135 2 . Geometric Efficiency 1663 . Products and Ratios 136 3 . Intrinsic Efficiency 1684. More Complicated 4 . Energy Selective Counting 169Combinations 136 5 . Some Complicating Factors 170D . Applications of Statistical 6 . Calibration Sources 175Analysis 136 B. Problems in the Detection and1 . Effects of Averaging 136 Measurement of R Particles 1762 . Counting Rates 137 C. Dead Time3 . Significance of Differences 1 . Causes of Dead Time 178between Counting 2 . Mathematical Models 179Measurements 137 3 . Window Fraction Effects 1814. Effects of Background 137 4 . Dead Time Correction Methods 1815. Minimum Detectable Activity 138 D . Quality Assurance for Radiation6 . Comparing CountingSystems 138 Measurement Systems 1827 . Estimating Required CountingTimes 1398 . Optimal Division of CountingTimes 140E . Statistical Tests 140 A. Nal(TI) Well Counter 1851 . The X2 Test 141 1 . Detector Characteristics 1852 . The t-Test 142 2 . Detection Efficiency 1863 . Treatment of "Outliers" 145 3 . Sample Volume Effects 1884. Linear Regression 146 4 . Assay of Absolute Activity 1905 . Shielding and Background 1906 . Energy Calibration 191Pulse-Height Spectrometry 149 7. Multiple RadionuclideSource Counting 191A. Basic Principles 149 8 . Dead Time 192B . Spectrometry with Nal(TI) 150 9 . Automatic Multiple-Sample1 . The Ideal Pulse-Height Systems 192Spectrum 150 10 . Applications 1952 . The Actual Spectrum 151 B . Counting with Conventional Nal(TI)3 . Effects of Detector Size 154 Detectors 1954. Effects of Counting Rate 155 1 . Large Sample Volumes 1955. General Effects of r-Ray 2. Liquid and Gas FlowEnergy 155 Counting 1956 . Energy Linearity 157 C. Liquid Scintillation Counters 1967 . Energy Resolution 157 1 . General Characteristics 196C. Spectrometry with Other 2 . Pulse-Height Spectrometry 198Detectors 160 3 . Counting Vials 198Problems in RadiationDetection andMeasurement 165Counting Systems 185Contents** e ixx . . * PHYSICS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE4. Energy and EfficiencyCalibrations 1995 . Quench Corrections	1996. Sample PreparationTechniques 2017 . Liquid and Gas FlowCounting 2028 . Automatic Multiple-Sample LSCounters 2029 . Applications 202D. Gas-Filled Detectors 2031 . Dose Calibrators 2032 . Gas Flow Counters 204E . Semiconductor DetectorSystems 2051 . System Components 2052. Applications 207F . In Vivo Counting Systems 2071 . Nal(TI) Probe Systems 2072 . Miniature 7-Ray Probes for SurgicalUse 2073 . Whole-Body Counters 210The Gamma Camera:Basic Principles 211The Gamma Camera:PerformanceCharacteristics 2272 . Image Nonuniformity 2353 . Nonuniformity CorrectionTechniques 2364 . Gamma Camera Tuning 238C. Design and PerformanceCharacteristics of Parallel-HoleCollimators 2391 . Basic Limitations in CollimatorPerformance 2392 . Spatal Thickness 2393 . Geometry of Collimator Holes 2414 . System Resolution 244D. Performance Characteristics ofConverging, Diverging, andPinhole Collimators 245E . Measurements of Gamma CameraPerformance 2471 . Intrinsic Resolution 2482 . System Resolution 2493 . Spatial Linearity 2494 . Uniformity 2495 . Counting Rate Performance 2506 . Energy Resolution 2507 . System Sensitivity 250A. General Concepts of Radionuclide Image Quality inand EvaluatingImaging 211 Nuclear Medicine 253B. Basic Principles of the Gamma A. Basic Methods for CharacterizingCamera 212. .-Components _" _ and QElectronics 213 B. Spatial Resolution 2533 . Collimators 218 1 . Factors Affecting Spatial" " Gamma " -Camera 222 2 . Methods for Evaluating SpatialC. Types of Gamma Cameras and Resolution 254Their Clinical Uses 223 C. Contrast 259-Noise 263" - " ImageRandom NoiseNoise 263""Contrast-to-Noise Ratio 2631 . Contrast-Detail (C-D) Studies 268(ROC) Studies 270E. Observer Performance Studies 2682 . Receiver Operating CharacteristicA. Basic PerformanceCharacteristics 2271 . Intrinsic Spatial Resolution 2272 . Detection Efficiency 2293 . Energy Resolution 2304 . Performance at High CountingRates 231B . Detector Limitations : Nonuniformityand Nonlinearity 2341 . Image Nonlinearity 234 Terminology 274TomographicReconstructionin Nuclear Medicine 273A. General Concepts, Notation, andB . Backprojection and Fourier-Based	Positron EmissionTechniques 276 Tomography 3251 . Simple Backprojection 2762 . Direct Fourier Transform A. Annihilation CoincidenceReconstruction 278 Detection 3253 . Filtered Backprojection 280 1 . Basic Principles of Annihilation4 . Multislice Imaging 283 Coincidence Detection 325C. Image Quality in Fourier Transform 2 . Time-of-Flight PET 327and Filtered Backprojection 3 . Spatial Resolution : Detectors 328Techniques 2834 . Spatial Resolution : Positron1 . Effects of Sampling on ImagePhysics 3285 . Spatial Resolution :Quality 283 Depth-of-Interaction Effect 3342 . Sampling Coverage and 6 . Spatial Resolution : Sampling 336Consistency Requirements 286 7 . Spatial Resolution :3 . Noise Propagation, Signal-to-Noise Reconstruction Filters 336Ratio, and Contrast-to-Noise 8 . Sensitivity 337Ratio 287 9 . Event Types in AnnihilationD. Iterative Reconstruction Coincidence Detection 340Algorithms 291 B . PET Detector and Scanner1 . General Concepts of Iterative Designs 342Reconstruction 291 1 . Block Detectors 3422 . Expectation-Maximization 2 . Modified Block Detectors 344Reconstruction 293 3 . Dedicated PET Systems 346E . Reconstruction of Fan-Beam and 4 . Gamma Camera SystemsCone-Beam Data 294 for PET 348C. Data Acquisition for PET 3501 . Two-Dimensional DataAcquisition 3502 . Three-Dimensional DataAcquisition 3513 . Data Acquisition for DynamicA. SPECT Systems 299 Studies and Whole-Body1 . Gamma Camera Scans 353SPECT Systems 299 D. Data Corrections and2. Advanced SPECT Systems 300 Quantitative Aspects of PET 3533. Combined ModalitySystems 302 1 . Normalization 353B. Practical Implementation 2~Correction for RandomCoincidences 354of SPECT 303 3 . Correction for Scattered1 . Attenuation Effects Radiation 355and Conjugate Counting 305 4 . Attenuation Correction 3552 . Attenuation Correction 310 5 . Dead Time Corrections 3573 . Transmission Scans and Attenuation 6 . Absolute Quantification ofMaps 313 PET Images 3574. Scatter Corrections 315 E . Clinical and Research5. Partial-Volume Effects 317C. Performance Characteristics ofApplications of PET 358SPECT Systems 3191 . Spatial Resolution 3192 . Volume Sensitivity 320 Digital Image Processing in3 . Other Measurements of Nuclear Medicine 361Performance 3214. Quality Assurance in SPECT 321 A. Digital Images 362D. Clinical Applications of 1 . Basic Characteristics andSPECT 322 Terminology 362Single Photon EmissionComputed Tomography 299Contents o o 9 xixii . * * PHYSICS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE2 . Spatial Resolution andMatrix Size	3643. Image Display 3654. Acquisition Modes 366B . Digital Image-ProcessingTechniques 3671 . Image Visualization 3672 . Regions and Volumes ofInterest 3703 . Time-Activity Curves 3714. Image Smoothing 3715 . Edge Detection and Segmentation 3716 . Co-registration of Images 373C. Processing Environment 375Tracer Kinetic Modeling 377A. Basic Concepts 377B . Tracers and Compartments 3781 . Definition of a Tracer 3782 . Definition of a Compartment 3803 . Distribution Volume and PartitionCoefficient 3804. Flux 3815. Rate Constants 3826. Steady State 383C. Tracer Delivery and Transport 3851 . Blood Flow, Extraction,and Clearance 3852 . Transport 387D. Formulation ofa Compartmental Model 388E . Examples of Dynamic Imagingand Tracer Kinetic Models 3911 . Cardiac Function andEjection Fraction 3912. Blood Flow Models 3923 . Blood Flow : TrappedRadiotracers 3924 . Blood Flow : ClearanceTechniques 3945 . Enzyme Kinetics : GlucoseMetabolism 3956 . Receptor Ligand Assays 401F . Summary 402Internal RadiationDosimetry 405A. Radiation Dose and Equivalent Dose:Quantities and Units 405B . Calculation of Radiation Dose(MIRD Method) 4061 . Basic Procedure and SomePractical Problems 4062. Cumulated Activity, A 4073 . Equilibrium Absorbed DoseConstant, A 4114 . Absorbed Fraction, ~ 4125 . Specific Absorbed Fraction, (D,and the Dose ReciprocityTheorem 4146 . Mean Dose per CumulatedActivity, S 4147 . Whole-Body Dose, Effective Dose,and Effective DoseEquivalent 4168 . Limitations of the MIRDMethod 417Radiation Safety andHealth Physics 427A. Quantities and Units 4281 . Dose-Modifying Factors 4282 . Exposure and Air Kerma 428B . Regulations Pertaining tothe Use of Radionuclides 4301 . Nuclear Regulatory CommissionLicensing and Regulations 4302 . Restricted and UnrestrictedAreas 4303 . Dose Limits 4314 . Concentrations for AirborneRadioactivity in RestrictedAreas 4315 . Environmental Concentrationsand Concentrations forSewage Disposal 4316 . Record-KeepingRequirements 4327 . Recommendations of AdvisoryBodies 432C. Safe Handling of RadioactiveMaterials 4331 . The ALARA Concept 4332. Reduction of Radiation Doses fromExternal Sources 4333 . Reduction of Radiation Doses fromInternal Sources 4364 . Laboratory Design 4375 . Procedures for HandlingSpills 438D. Disposal of RadioactiveWaste 439E. Radiation Monitoring 4391 . Survey Meters and LaboratoryMonitors 4392. Personnel Dosimeters 4403. Wipe Testing	440Appendix A: Unit Conversions 443Appendix 8: Properties of theElements 444Appendix C: Characteristics ofSome Medically Appendix F:The Fourier Transform 483Important A. The FT: What ItRadionuclides 447 Represents 483B. Calculating FTs 484Appendix D: Mass Attenuation C. Some Properties of FTs 485Coefficients for Water, D. Some Examples of FTs 488Sodium Iodide, BGO, CZT, Appendix G: Convolutions 493and Lead 479 Index 499Contents + s * AilAppendix E: Effective Dose Equivalent(mSv/MBq) and RadiationAbsorbed Dose Estimates(mGy/MBq) to AdultSubjects from SelectedInternally AdministeredRadiopharmaceuticals 480

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