We examine the impact of a different cultural background on individual behavior, focusing on the aggressiveness level of southern and nothern European football players in the English Premier League. We find that southern European football players collect on average more yellow and red cards as compared to their nothern European colleagues. We also find that the initially more aggressive football violent behavior displayed by southern European players coverges towards the local average, the longer their experience in the Premier League. Altough limited to a particular area in sports, we claim that this change in behavior patterns of immigtants respresents an example of cultural assimilation.

De Luca, Giacomo

Schokkaert, Jeroen

Swinnen, Jo

English

Research Papers in Economics

R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
LICOS Centre for Institutions and Economic Performance, 
University of Leuven (KUL)
05/18/2011 1
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework
3. Empirical Framework
3.1 Variables and Data
3.2 Empirical Specification
3.3 Regression Results
3.4 Extensions and Robustness Checks
4. Conclusion
2
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011Effects of skilled migration on human capital in origin countries:
 Negative
Direct loss of migrants’ human capital
 Positive
Possibility of migration increases returns to education
Remittances relax credit constraints for investing in education and health
Some migrants return with new skills and education acquired abroad
Net effect depends on circumstances (“brain drain” or “brain gain”)
3
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Particular case: sports migration and human capital
 Share of migrants in main sports leagues very large
 Specificity of sports migration: migrants still play for national teams
 Focus on football, where migration increased largely over the last decade 
(1995 Bosman ruling)
4
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Dominant view in sports migration literature: “muscle drain” undermines
sporting capacity of developing countries, leading to poor performances of 
developing countries in world sport events
 Ad hoc observations FIFA World Cup
Cameroon 1990, Senegal 2002, Ghana 2010: quarter final
 Our aim: accurate assessment of the impact of football player migration on
the performance of national teams
 Result: migration of football players significantly improves the 
performance of their home country national teams
05/18/2011 5
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen Assumptions
Two countries: home and foreign
Players in each national football team:
Innate talent players home (foreign) national team:   (   )
Players are ranked by increasing talent:                      (                       )  
Total stock of talent home (foreign) national team:
(            )
6
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Assumptions
Football skills determined by talent     and training level    :
Players can play for a foreign club, but not for the foreign national team
Market for football bigger in foreign country
Training level higher in the foreign country clubs:
Players’ wages an increasing function of skills (        )
Players from the home national team earn more if they play for a foreign
club:  
7
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Migration decision
Migrating abroad entails a cost for the player
Player will migrate if:
 Football migration rate:
8
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Performance of a team given by contest success function, in line with
literature:
is the probability that the home team wins a game against the foreign
team
(              ) is the stock of skills of the home (foreign) national team
9
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 As players        from the home national team migrate:
 Performance as a function of the migration rate:
05/18/2011 10
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen Effects of migration on national team performance:
 These effects depend on the assumption that migrating players obtain
superior training
 Theoretical model predicts a positive (but diminishing) influence of 
football players’ migration on national team performance
11
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/20113.1 Variables and Data
3.2 Empirical Specification
3.3 Regression Results
3.4 Extensions and Robustness Checks
12
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Dependent variable: national team performance: FIFA points
 Main independent variable: football migration rate
 The following migration index is attached to each national team:
 This index assigns a higher weight to players migrating to stronger leagues 
and higher divisions (higher skills spillover)
 Only national team players migrating to UEFA leagues in migration index
13
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011 Control variables, in line with the literature:
GDP per capita (and its squared form)
Population size (and its squared form)
Football history
Temperature
Historical performance
 Sample size:190 countries
14
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201115
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
Variables  Mean  Max.  Min.  Std. Dev. 
FIFA points  378.921  1568  0  320.993 
Migration index  0.204  0.922  0  0.237 
GDP per capita (in 1000$)   13.285  53.269  0.009  13.249 
Population (in 1000000 inhabitants)  20.818  307.212  0.012  41.577 
Football history  1939.326  2002  1873  27.294 
Temperature  83.821  256  0  68.641 
Historical performance  1.432  17  0  2.935 
  We estimate the following equation:
 We include both a linear and a quadratic form of the migration index in 
order to test for decreasing returns to migration
 This equation is estimated using ordinary least squares
16
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201117
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
  Dependent  
variable 
FIFA points 
Variables    (1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  159.855 
(0.000) 
1390.138 
(0.000) 
-660.940 
(0.069) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.51 
91 
(0.000) 
1323.701 
(0.000) 
-606.356 
(0.086) 
10.875 
(0.008) 
-0.192 
(0.046) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.528 
-7.63 
(0.782) 
1317.621 
(0.000) 
-663.132 
(0.017) 
14.267 
(0.000) 
-0.234 
(0.008) 
5.185 
(0.000) 
-0.015 
(0.001) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.627 
4296.92 
(0.000) 
1155.419 
(0.000) 
-508.075 
(0.055) 
10.599 
(0.003) 
-0.181 
(0.025) 
4.573 
(0.000) 
-0.013 
(0.002) 
-2.191 
(0.000) 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.652 
3813.691 
(0.001) 
1032.881 
(0.000) 
-377.991 
(0.163) 
9.749 
(0.006) 
-0.167 
(0.04) 
4.284 
(0.000) 
-0.012 
(0.003) 
-1.905 
(0.001) 
-0.566 
(0.006) 
 
 
190 
0.662 
2358.646 
(0.019) 
962.6 
(0.000) 
-466.043 
(0.081) 
6.55 
(0.054) 
-0.111 
(0.146) 
3.437 
(0.000) 
-0.011 
(0.005) 
-1.152 
(0.026) 
-0.42 
(0.028) 
29.399 
(0.000) 
190 
0.7 
  Unconditional specification (column (1)) 
Statistically significant migration coefficients for both the linear and 
quadratic term
Signs of the coefficients consistent with our hypothesis
 Conditional specifications (column (2)-(6))
Signs and significance of the control variables in line with previous studies
Signs of the migration coefficients still consistent with our hypothesis
18
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/20111. FIFA ranking as alternative dependent variable:
 The use of ranking leads to a loss of information
 Count variable: Poisson regression
 Likelihood Ratio testing: overdispersion
 This equation is estimated using negative binomial regression
19
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201120
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
  Dependent variable  FIFA ranking 
Variables    (1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  4.981 
(0.000) 
-2.568 
(0.000) 
0.788 
(0.371) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.509 
5.127 
(0.000) 
-2.518 
(0.000) 
0.756 
(0.36) 
-0.022 
(0.012) 
0.000 
(0.075) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.502 
5.336 
(0.000) 
-2.529 
(0.000) 
0.803 
(0.266) 
-0.032 
(0.000) 
0.001 
(0.01) 
-0.011 
(0.000) 
0.000 
(0.05) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.563 
-3.889 
(0.098) 
-2.197 
(0.000) 
0.495 
(0.466) 
-0.023 
(0.004) 
0.000 
(0.036) 
-0.009 
(0.002) 
0.000 
(0.09) 
0.005 
(0.000) 
 
 
 
 
190 
0.612 
-2.879 
(0.244) 
-1.956 
(0.000) 
0.261 
(0.702) 
-0.021 
(0.008) 
0.000 
(0.05) 
-0.008 
(0.002) 
0.000 
(0.026) 
0.004 
(0.003) 
0.001 
(0.005) 
 
 
190 
0.624 
0.27 
(0.901) 
-1.696 
(0.000) 
0.398 
(0.538) 
-0.013 
(0.081) 
0.000 
(0.165) 
-0.007 
(0.004) 
0.000 
(0.102) 
0.002 
(0.028) 
0.001 
(0.024) 
-0.081 
(0.000) 
190 
0.682 
 2. Results driven by countries with small football markets, in line with
theory?
 Inclusion of interaction term between a dummy variable for UEFA 
countries and the migration index
21
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201122
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
 
Variables 
Dependent variable  FIFA points 
(1) 
FIFA ranking 
(2) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
UEFA*migration 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  3052.091 
(0.003) 
1048.283 
(0.000) 
-450.156 
(0.076) 
8.421 
(0.015) 
-0.139 
(0.075) 
3.135 
(0.001) 
-0.01 
(0.004) 
-1.508 
(0.004) 
-0.53 
(0.006) 
28.467 
(0.000) 
-222.176 
(0.029) 
190 
0.722 
-1.583 
(0.451) 
-1.963 
(0.000) 
0.369 
(0.578) 
-0.018 
(0.014) 
0.000 
(0.062) 
-0.006 
(0.006) 
0.000 
(0.085) 
0.003 
(0.002) 
0.001 
(0.003) 
-0.082 
(0.000) 
0.669 
(0.008) 
190 
0.683 
 2. Results driven by countries with small football markets, in line with
theory?
 Exclusion of UEFA countries (144 obs.)
23
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201124
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
   
Variables 
Dependent variable  FIFA points 
(1) 
FIFA ranking 
(2) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  2789.128 
(0.003) 
1010.928 
(0.000) 
-449.419 
(0.162) 
5.673 
(0.081) 
-0.077 
(0.285) 
2.166 
(0.014) 
-0.008 
(0.021) 
-1.363 
(0.005) 
-0.504 
(0.007) 
39.733 
(0.000) 
144 
0.741 
-0.773 
(0.689) 
-1.813 
(0.000) 
0.447 
(0.601) 
-0.01 
(0.105) 
0.000 
(0.363) 
-0.004 
(0.034) 
0.000 
(0.102) 
0.003 
(0.003) 
0.001 
(0.006) 
-0.136 
(0.000) 
144 
0.686 3. Results driven by countries with zero migration?
 Exclusion of countries without migration of national team players (91 obs.)
25
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201126
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
 
Variables 
Dependent variable  FIFA points 
(1) 
FIFA ranking 
(2) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  3077.582 
(0.041) 
717.978 
(0.015) 
-111.474 
(0.775) 
3.982 
(0.558) 
0.004 
(0.984) 
1.971 
(0.123) 
-0.007 
(0.11) 
-1.477 
(0.055) 
-0.652 
(0.022) 
37.656 
(0.000) 
91 
0.678 
-1.105 
(0.711) 
-1.319 
(0.039) 
-0.128 
(0.897) 
-0.007 
(0.585) 
-0.000 
(0.864) 
-0.003 
(0.197) 
0.000 
(0.265) 
0.003 
(0.043) 
0.001 
(0.017) 
-0.13 
(0.000) 
91 
0.6 
 4. Players that once migrated to UEFA league (and thus acquired skills
during this UEFA experience), but returned?
 Inclusion of earlier migration patterns in migration index
27
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201128
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
 
Variables 
Dependent variable  FIFA points 
(1) 
FIFA ranking 
(2) 
Constant 
 
Migration 
 
Migration² 
 
GDP per capita 
 
(GDP per capita)² 
 
Population 
 
Population² 
 
Football history 
 
Temperature 
 
Historical performance 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  1920.257 
(0.056) 
1049.559 
(0.000) 
-551.17 
(0.027) 
6.994 
(0.028) 
-0.133 
(0.06) 
3.337 
(0.000) 
-0.01 
(0.004) 
-0.943 
(0.067) 
-0.298 
(0.107) 
28.208 
(0.000) 
190 
0.72 
1.148 
(0.601) 
-1.944 
(0.000) 
-0.716 
(0.266) 
-0.014 
(0.046) 
0.000 
(0.077) 
-0.007 
(0.003) 
0.000 
(0.106) 
0.002 
(0.072) 
0.001 
(0.073) 
-0.076 
(0.000) 
190 
0.701 
 5. Endogeneity of migration index?
 Ability bias: countries with more talented players will have more migration
and a better national team?
Control for population size and football culture
Experience effect
 IV?
29
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/20115. Endogeneity of migration index?
 Football federations promote both migration and good results for the 
national team?
 The following equation is estimated using ordinary least squares:
30
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/201131
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011
  Dependent variable  Difference in FIFA ranking 
Variables    (1)  (2)  (3)  (4) 
Constant 
 
Difference in migration 
 
Difference in GDP per capita 
 
Difference in population 
 
Football history 
 
Observations 
Adjusted R² 
  0.034 
(0.362) 
0.275 
(0.079) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
44 
0.038 
-0.018 
(0.679) 
0.311 
(0.043) 
0.015 
(0.013) 
 
 
 
 
44 
0.09 
-0.003 
(0.955) 
0.309 
(0.044) 
0.014 
(0.034) 
-0.002 
(0.364) 
 
 
44 
0.074 
-1.963 
(0.62) 
0.285 
(0.084) 
0.012 
(0.09) 
-0.001 
(0.577) 
0.001 
(0.622) 
44 
0.055 
  Theory
Positive effect of migration on national football team performance 
Decreasing returns to migration on national football team performance 
 Empirics
Strong and robust support for the former
Some support, but less robust, for the latter
While developing countries’ football clubs may experience a “muscle
drain”, their national teams experience a “muscle gain” at the same time
32
R. Berlinschi, J. Schokkaert and J.F.M. Swinnen
05/18/2011

Cultural Differences, Behavior and Assimilation: Player Nationality and Penalties in Football.

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Cultural Differences, Behavior and Assimilation: Player Nationality and Penalties in Football.

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Research Papers in Economics