Abstract: This study aimed at examining the effectiveness of the directed reading–thinking activity (DRTA) to 

enhance L2 learners’ inference skills in reading. 69 students of two classes in a junior high school in Jakarta 

participated in this study. Each class was randomly assigned into the experimental and control group. The 

experimental group was treated through the DRTA method and the control group was taught by using the

regular method. Both the experimental and control groups were given the pre-test and post-test. The reading 

materials given in the treatment, pre-test, and post-test were the same for both groups. The result of the post-test

showed that the mean score of the experimental group (M = 19.14) was significantly higher than that of the 

control group (M = 15.29) (t (44.155) = 3.867, p<0.05). Correspondingly, the chi-square test showed that there 

were significant differences between the experimental and control group in the ability to answer the inferential 

comprehension questions in the post test. The result indicated that DRTA was more effective than the ordinary 

method for enhancing L2 learners’ inference skills in reading.

Keywords:Directed reading–thinking activity, inference skills, reading comprehensio

Lanny Hidajat,

Prima, Reisa Dewita

Sebelas Maret Institutional Repository

stThe 61  TEFLIN International Conference, UNS Solo 2014 A CASE STUDY OF ENHANCING INFERENCE SKILLS IN READING COMPREHENSION THROUGH DIRECTED READING-THINKING ACTIVITYReisa Dewita Prima and Lanny HidajatEnglish Department, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesiareisadewitaa@hotmail.com; lanny.hidayat@atmajaya.ac.idAbstract: This study aimed at examining the effectiveness of the directed reading–thinking activity (DRTA) to enhance L2 learners’ inference skills in reading. 69 students of two classes in a junior high school in Jakarta participated in this study. Each class was randomly assigned into the experimental and control group. The experimental group was treated through the DRTA method and the control group was taught by using theregular method. Both the experimental and control groups were given the pre-test and post-test. The reading materials given in the treatment, pre-test, and post-test were the same for both groups. The result of the post-testshowed that the mean score of the experimental group (M = 19.14) was significantly higher than that of the control group (M = 15.29) (t (44.155) = 3.867, p<0.05). Correspondingly, the chi-square test showed that there were significant differences between the experimental and control group in the ability to answer the inferential comprehension questions in the post test. The result indicated that DRTA was more effective than the ordinary method for enhancing L2 learners’ inference skills in reading.Keywords: Directed reading–thinking activity, inference skills, reading comprehensionIntroductionImproving reading skills is essential in foreign language learning. Learners can develop L2 linguistic competence through reading skills. For instance, Brown, Waring, and Donkaewbua (2008) found that Japanese L2 learners of English could learn new words from context better when the mode of input was in the form of reading.L2 learners read for different purposes. Based on the purposes for reading, Grabe (2009) classifies reading into six types: (1) reading to search for information (scanning), (2) reading for a quick understanding (skimming), (3) reading to learn, (4) reading to integrate information, (5) reading to evaluate, critique, and use information, and (6) reading for general comprehension.The objective of reading for general comprehension is to understand the whole idea of a text. Reading comprehension is a complex process. A reader can fully understand what he reads only if he interacts with the text, which is by integrating the reader’s background knowledge, the information in the text, and also the reader’s stance toward the text (Pardo, 2004). Accordingly, teachers must not only ask learners to read a text. They should also encourage learners to use their knowledge to interpret the text (Meneghetti, Caretti, and De Beni, 2006).According to the Barrett Taxonomy of Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Reading Comprehension, there are five outcomes of reading comprehension: (1) literal comprehension, which requires learners to recall ideas from the explanation which is explicitly stated, (2) reorganization, which requires learners to reorganize the idea of a text, (3) inferential comprehension, which requires learners to make a hypothesis from an idea which is explicitly stated, (4) evaluation, which requires learners to make an evaluative judgment, and (5) appreciation, which requires learners to be aesthetically and emotionally sensitive to the ideas and information of the text.The present study focuses on L2 learners’ inferential comprehension skills in reading. Chikalanga (1992) defines the inferential comprehension as a cognitive process which allows learners to get the implicit information of the text by integrating the written information with the learners’ prior knowledge. The Barrett’sdivides the inferential comprehension into eight subcategories, which are: inferring supporting details, inferring main ideas, inferring sequence, inferring comparisons, inferring cause and effect relationships, inferring character traits, predicting outcomes, and interpreting figurative language:Not all information in a text is explicitly stated; therefore, inference skills are important in reading comprehension. Inference skills can be taught directly by using a method which can urge learners to involve actively in the reading activity. As pointed out by Lerms, Miller, and Soro (2010), “Inference can be developed through interactive dialogue and conversation about text”. In addition, teachers should stimulate learners to use prior knowledge to make a prediction about what will happen in the story (Hansen, 1981).Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA), which was created by Russel Stauffer in 1969, is a method that can be used for developing L2 learners’ inferential skills. The objective of DRTA is to enable learners to think critically while reading and use their prior knowledge to predict what will happen on the text.736stThe 61  TEFLIN International Conference, UNS Solo 2014 According to Fabrikant, Siekierski, and Williams (1999), DRTA makes learners predict what will happen on the text, check the prediction, and then revise the prediction. Erliana (2011) lists the three steps for conducting DRTA in the classroom. The first step is the pre-reading phase, in which learners are asked to brainstorm and use their own experience to predict what the text will be about. The second step is the guided-silent reading. Learners read the text themselves and stop at some points to see whether their predictions are true or not. The last step is the post-reading. Learners work together to discuss the previous predictions, revise the predictions,and verify the predictions.The successfulness of DRTA depends a lot on the teacher’s questions. According to Haggard (1988), there are two types of questions that teachers can use in DRTA. The first type urges learners to think critically about what will happen based on the available clues, such as the title, important vocabularies, and also illustrative pictures. The second type makes learners infer a logical response based on the literal information which is already provided in the text. Both types of questions require learners to use their prior knowledge.The effectiveness of DRTA for improving L2 learners’ inferential comprehension and, subsequently,their reading comprehension, was evidenced in the study by El-Koumy (2006), which was conducted on 72 students from Menouf Secondary School for Boys in Egypt. He reported that the participants who were taught by using DRTA performed significantly better than those who were taught by using the conventional method in the post-test. Corresponding to El-Koumy’s study, Erliana (2011) found that DRTA helped to improve learners’ comprehension of expository text and also enhance active participation. The present study investigates the effectiveness of DRTA for enhancing the inferential comprehension of Indonesian learners of English. In line with Hansen’s (1981) proposition that teachers should encourage learners to make predictions to teach inferential comprehension, we argue that DRTA can help Indonesianlearners in making inferences when reading English texts. This argument is based on the fact that the activities of DRTA revolve around making predictions from reading texts and verifying those predictions (see El-Koumy, 2006; Erliana, 2011). To verify our argument, we conducted an experiment to answer the following research question: Would subjects who received the DRTA treatment be able to answer inferential comprehension questions better than those who were taught by using the regular method?MethodsThis study employed quasi-experimental design. The subjects of this study—sixty nine eighth graders of a junior high school in Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta—were divided into the experimental group (35 students) and the control group (34 students). Both groups were given the pre-test before the treatment and the post-test after the treatment. The pre-test was to make sure that the subjects in the two groups had similar ability in answering inferential comprehension questions before the treatment. The post-test was to check the effect of the treatment on the subjects’ ability to answer inferential comprehension questions.Six reading texts were used as the research instruments—four texts were used in the treatment and the other two were used in the pre-test and post-test, respectively. To ensure that the level of difficulty of the six texts was more or less the same, we adopted the texts from the students’ book, titled Scaffolding English for Junior High School Students for grade VIII (Priyana, Irjanti, and Renitasari, 2008) and also consulted the teacher. Every text was followed by a number of reading comprehension questions which consisted of both theliteral comprehension questions and inferential comprehension questions. The treatment for both the experimental and control groups was given within two weeks in four meetings. The experimental group was taught through DRTA in the following three steps: First, the researcher asked the subjects to make predictions based on the illustration pictures and the title of the story. All predictions were listed on the whiteboard. Second, the researcher asked the subjects to read the story silently. Third, the researcher and subjects evaluated the accuracy of the predictions and revised the wrong ones. The control group was taught by using the method that the classroom teacher generally used for teaching reading comprehension, which was by asking them to analyze difficult vocabularies, skim and scan the text, and discuss the content of the text together. In both groups, the treatment was immediately followed by answering the comprehension questions.The analysis began by grading the subjects’ answers to the inferential questions in the pre-test and post-test. Each correct answer was valued 5 points. Wrong answers did not get any point. The scores of the pre-test and post-test ranged from 0 (all answers were incorrect) and 20 (all answers were correct). Afterward, we compared the means of the post-test of the experimental group and the control group by using the independent sample t-test. We also compared between the means of the post-test and pre-test of the two groups separately by using the paired-sample t-test. In addition, we compared the numbers of the correct and wrong answers of the experimental group to those of the control group by using the Chi-Square. The t-tests and the Chi-Square test were calculated by using SPSS 17.0.737stThe 61  TEFLIN International Conference, UNS Solo 2014 Findings and DiscussionWe first compared the pre-test mean score of the experimental group (m = 10.14) and the control group (m = 8.97) by using the independent sample t-test to make sure that the inferential comprehension level of the subjects in the experimental and control group before the treatment were more or less equal. The t-test showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control group on the pre-test (t(67) = 0.378, p > 0.05). This means that the subjects in both groups had more or less similar ability to answer inferential comprehension questions before the treatment.In the post-test, the mean score of the experimental group (m = 19.14) was higher than the mean score of the control group (m = 15.29). The t-test showed that the difference in the post-test mean scores of the experimental and control group was significant (t(44.155) = 3.867, p < 0.05). This means that the subjects in the experimental group, who were taught by DRTA, were able to answer the inferential comprehension questions much better than those in the control group, who were taught by the regular teaching method. This means thatDRTA was more effective for enhancing the subjects’ inference skills than the regular method.The fact that DRTA was effective for enhancing the subjects’ ability to answer inferential comprehension questions was also reflected in the significant difference between the mean score of the pre-test (m = 10.14) and the post-test (m = 19.14) of the experimental group (t(34) = -8.575, p < 0.05). Interestingly, the pre-test (m = 10.14) and post-test (m = 19.14) mean scores of the control group also differed significantly (t(33) = -6.076, p < 0.05). This means that, after the treatment, both the experimental and control groups were able to answer the inferential comprehension questions much better. These results indicate that the method that the teacher generally had used for teaching reading comprehension could enhance the students’ inferential comprehension. However, the fact that the post-test mean score of the experimental group was significantly higher than that of the control group indicates that DRTA was more effective than the regular teaching method.We also compared the numbers of the correct and wrong answers to all the inferential comprehension questions made by the experimental group and those made by the control group. The number of the questions which were correctly answered by the experimental group (n = 134) was higher than that of the control group (n = 104); while, the number of the incorrect answers by the experimental group (n = 6) was smaller than that of the control group (n = 32). According to the Chi-Square test, there was a statistically significant difference in the number of questions that were accurately and inaccurately answered by the experimental and control group inthe post-test (X2(1) = 21.52, p < .001). This means that the experimental group could answer the inferential comprehension questions much more accurately than the control group.To summarize, the result of the present experiment showed that subjects who were taught by using DRTA performed much better than those who were taught by using the regular teaching method in answering inferential comprehension questions. This means that DRTA is more effective for enhancing L2 learners’ inferential comprehension than the regular teaching method. This result corresponds to the results of El-Koumy’s (2006) and Erliana’s (2011) study. DRTA can facilitate the development of the inference skills in reading because the method requires learners to make predictions before reading a given text. Learners can only make predictions if they activate their prior knowledge, and incorporate it into the information in the text, which subsequently enables them to draw inferences (Hansen, 1981). According to El-Koumy (2006; pp. 17), DRTA was an effective strategy for teaching inferential and referential comprehension because it “… could activate students’ prior knowledge, keep them engage with the text, regulates their reading-thinking process, make them compare their own thinking with that of the author, and ultimately improve their inferential comprehension skill”.Conclusion and SuggestionsBy using DRTA teachers can develop students’ inference skills in addition to the skills which are regularly trained in class. Making predictions, which is the main activity of DRTA, requires students to activate their background knowledge which, subsequently, enhances their ability in making inferences. The effectivenessof DRTA to improve L2 learners’ inference skills in reading is evidenced by the result of this study which showed that the DRTA subjects could answer inferential comprehension questions much better than the regular teaching method subjects.The result of this study presents empirical findings that further support the argument that DRTA is effective for enhancing L2 learners’ inference skills. The improvement of L2 learners’ inference skills as the result of employing DRTA is expected to enhance their critical thinking skills as well. This notion is in line with the claim that inference skills are one of the cores of critical thinking (Facione, 2011).Further studies are needed to verify the effectiveness of DRTA for enhancing L2 learners’ inference skills in reading. To investigate factors that may affect its effectiveness, the method must be tested on larger subjects with the different academic, cultural, and socio-economic backgrounds. In addition, researchers can also examine the effect of different topics, types, and genres of the texts on the effectiveness of DRTA. Another aspect that can be researched on is whether or not DRTA is effective for all types of inferential comprehension. 738stThe 61  TEFLIN International Conference, UNS Solo 2014 It is also interesting to examine whether the use of DRTA can also improve learners’ critical thinking skills in general.NoteThis article is a revised version of the scientific writing of the first author which was submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Bachelor degree in Education from Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia.ReferencesBrown, R., Waring, R., and Donkaewbua, S. 2008. Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2): 136-163.Chikalanga, I. 1992. A Suggested Taxonomy of Inferential Comprehension for the   Reading Teacher. Reading in a Foreign Language,8 (2): 697-709. Retrieved from Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.El-Koumy, A. S. A. 2006. The Effects of the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity on EFL Students' Referential and Inferential Comprehension. Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), USA, 2006. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502645.pdf  Erliana, S. 2011. Improving Reading Comprehension Through Directed Reading-Thinking  Activity (DRTA) Strategy. Journal on English as a Foreign Language.1(1): 49-57. Retrieved fromhttp://fauziannor.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/santi-erliana.pdfFabrikant, W. Siekierski, .N and Williams, C. 1999. Improving Students' Inferential and Literal Reading Comprehension(Master's Action Research Project, Saint XavierUniversity, Chicago). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED433497.pdfFacione, P. 2011. Critical thinking: what it is and why it counts. Retrieved from www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2006.pdf  Grabe, W. 2009. Reading in a Second Language. New York: Cambridge University Press.Haggard, M. 1988. Developing Critical Thinking with the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity. The Reading Teacher,41 (6): 526-533. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ discover/10.2307/20199851?uid=3738224&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21104288181173  Hansen, J. 1981. An Inferential Comprehension Strategy for Use with Primary Grade Children. The Reading Teacher. 34(6): 665-669. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ discover/10.2307/20195311?uid=3738224&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21104288181173  Lems, K. , Miller, L., and Soro, T. M. 2010. Teaching Reading to English Language Learners. New York: The Guilford Press.Meneghetti, C., Carretti, B., and De Beni, R. 2006. Components of Reading Comprehension and Scholastic Achievement. Learning and Individual Differences,16(4):291–301. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608007000106Pardo, L. 2004. What every teacher needs to know about comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 58(3): 272-280. Retrieved from http://www.learner.org/workshops/teachreading 35/pdf/teachers_know_comprehension.pdf  Prima, R.D. 2014. Examining the Effectiveness of the Directed Reading Thinking Activity to Enhance Learners’ Inference skills in Reading. Unpublished Scientific Paper. Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta.Priyana, J., Irjanti, A., and Renitasari, V. 2008. Scaffolding English for Junior High School Students Grade VIII.Jakarta: Pusat Perbukuan Departmen Pendidikan Nasional.The Barrett Taxonomy of Cognitive and Affective Dimension of Reading Comprehension. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.vdac.de/vdac/index.php?option=com_docman &task=doc_view&gid=149739

A CASE STUDY OF ENHANCING INFERENCE SKILLS IN READING COMPREHENSION 

THROUGH DIRECTED READING-THINKING ACTIVITY

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A CASE STUDY OF ENHANCING INFERENCE SKILLS IN READING COMPREHENSION THROUGH DIRECTED READING-THINKING ACTIVITY

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