"On average, a typical developing country in Africa is assisted by about 30 aid institutions in the implementation of development strategies, yet Africa is still far from achieving food and nutrition security. Adequate access to food that is necessary for food security must be complemented with provision of health services, education, sanitary environments, and safe water sources, among other resources, to achieve nutrition security." from TextDevelopment assistance ,Food security Africa ,Nutrition Security ,Health services ,Water quality ,Sanitation ,Development strategies ,

Atsain, Achi

Ghersi, Gérard

Heidhues, Franz

Le Vallée, Jean-Charles

Nyangito, Hezron

Padilla, Martine

English

Research Papers in Economics

AFRICA
INTERNATIONAL FOOD 
POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
sustainable solutions for ending hunger and poverty
Assessing Development Strategies and Africa’s Food and
Nutrition Security
Franz Heidhues,Achi Atsain, Hezron Nyangito, Martine Padilla, Gérard Ghersi, and Jean-Charles Le Vallée
N
umerous
strategies,
policies, and
programs
intended to assist Africa’s
development have been
conceived and implemented by
international bodies, regional
and subregional groups, and
national institutions. On
average, a typical developing
country in Africa is assisted
by about 30 aid institutions in
the implementation of these
strategies, yet Africa is still far
from achieving food and
nutrition security.
2020 Africa Conference Brief 14EVALUATING  STRATEGIES
A
dequate access to food that is necessary for food 
security must be complemented with provision of
health services,education,sanitary environments,and safe
water sources,among other resources,to achieve nutri-
tion security. A comprehensive developmental approach
is thus required to ensure that all groups in a population
achieve both food and nutrition security. The successful
implementation of such a development strategy requires
clear formulation of the strategy,a conducive policy and
institutional environment,a widely shared consensus
about the strategy and the measures required to imple-
ment it,the human capacity for implementation,and suffi-
cient financial resources for agencies to execute the
strategy. Finally, agencies and stakeholders need to have
adequate incentives to take the planned action.
To evaluate a development strategy in detail,it is
necessary to address the following questions:
•  Have key issues been clearly identified, properly
analyzed, and located within their political, eco-
nomic, and sociocultural contexts?
•  Are objectives clearly defined,internally consis-
tent,and formulated realistically,and have possible
conflicts between the objectives been identified
and trade-offs between them been addressed?
• Are policies and programs for achieving these
objectives appropriate to, congruent with, and
supportive of the strategy?
• Is the capacity to implement the strategy available
—that is, are there sufficient financial resources,
the necessary human capacity, the requisite insti-
tutional framework, and adequate infrastructure?
• Has the time required for implementation been
estimated realistically, taking into account the
demands of institution building, education, and
training?
• Have all stakeholders been included in the
process of strategy development, and, in particu-
lar, have they been involved in identifying priori-
ties, in defining objectives, and in planning and
implementing the strategy?
•  Have the lessons of past experiences of develop-
ment strategy implementation been taken into
account?
IMPORTANT STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS
M
ost African countries became independent in the
1960s.The relatively positive socioeconomic per-
formances of African countries during the postindepen-
dence boom years were followed by downturns, which
have continued in some countries to the present date.
Two fundamentally different approaches to furthering
Africa’s development emerged in the late 1970s and the
early 1980s and were pursued simultaneously; all subse-
quent initiatives emerged from these two positions.
The first position was that held by the Organization
of African Unity (OAU) and was used to formulate the
strategies that made up the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA)
and the Regional Food Plan for Africa (AFPLAN).This
position perceived Africa’s colonial heritage and contin-
ued dependence on Western donors as the main hin-
drances to future development.Thus the LPA empha-
sized disassociation from Western donors and concen-
tration on internally focused development,with each
country orienting production toward its own markets.
Development aid was seen as rightful compensation for
colonial injustices.Programs formulated subsequently,
such as the African Priority Program for Economic
Recovery (1986–90),followed a similar line,while also
recognizing internal institutional and policy deficiencies.
The second position was based on the neoliberal
understanding of economic development and was typi-
cally held by donors and international institutions (such
as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
[IMF]).This position took concrete form in the structur-
al adjustment programs (SAPs),with their emphasis on
macroeconomic stability;elimination of market distor-
tions,subsidies,and price controls;liberalization of trade
and exchange transactions;reduction of government and
elimination of parastatal activities;and encouragement of
the private sector.
When the weaknesses of the SAP approach—such
as the resulting social disruption;worsening income dis-
tribution,unemployment,and anti-poor biases inherent
in public sector retrenchment;and its short-term orien-
tation—became increasingly apparent in the 1990s,the
World Bank extended the SAP framework to include a
“social dimension.” This led the World Bank to concep-
tualize a more holistic approach,the Comprehensive
Development Framework (CDF),which is still employed
today. The CDF tries to involve all stakeholders in the
development process and to integrate economic,social,
2political,cultural,and environmental needs. This new
approach focuses on poverty reduction and emphasizes
each country’s ownership and the involvement of its
national,regional,and local governments,civil society,and
private sector. Transparency,accountability,and the mon-
itoring and evaluation of performance of societal institu-
tions are also emphasized.This strategy has been inte-
grated into the poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP)
process for each individual country—a participatory
process whereby countries outline a strategy,including
specific policies for reducing poverty,restoring macro-
economic equilibrium,and establishing a framework con-
ducive to pro-poor growth.PRSPs also link the CDF to
the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.
An initiative known as the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD) was started by African
leaders in 1999 and builds on the CDF by combining
African initiatives and program ownership with neoliber-
al concepts.NEPAD supports liberalization and globaliza-
tion but emphasizes that these processes need to be fair
and must take place simultaneously with the leveling of
the international trade playing field.NEPAD calls on
African leaders and governments to improve gover-
nance,eliminate corruption,facilitate the creation of
democratic structures and processes,encourage a free
press,and establish an independent,fair,and reliable judi-
cial system.It also reemphasizes that agriculture and
rural development are crucial to poverty reduction and
food and nutrition security.NEPAD enjoys strong sup-
port from the international donor community.
These two contrasting positions on development
have affected most African socioeconomic development
programs.The second position has had a particularly sig-
nificant impact in recent years.SAPs and PRSPs have
shaped regional approaches and country policies and
their implementation throughout Africa. A significant
number of African countries have carried out successful
programs of macroeconomic stabilization and structural
reform.Reforms and retrenchment of the public sector
have been carried out in numerous countries,although
often at the cost of increasing unemployment—and thus
vulnerability to food and nutrition insecurity—and a
decline in public services,even in essential areas such as
health,education,and research and extension services.
International trade has been liberalized in many coun-
tries,and parastatal marketing boards no longer enjoy
market monopolies. A major issue in most African coun-
tries remains the failure of the weak private sector to
take up the functions once performed by government
marketing monopolies. A further key problem is the
unevenness of the playing field in international trade,
with the E.U.,Japan,and the United States continuing to
protect their markets against imports from developing
countries,including those in Africa.
CONCLUSIONS
A
lthough development programs have certainly 
experienced some success, progress toward food
and nutrition security has not been consistent throughout
Africa.Since the root causes of poverty and hunger vary
from country to country,highly context-specific policies
and strategies are required.Recommendations for African
governments and other agencies with respect to hunger
alleviation should therefore be based on the particular
features of the subregion or country in question.
Many countries have formulated poverty reduction
policies with an increased emphasis on agricultural devel-
opment.More progress is needed in key areas,however,
such as in reducing social and economic discrimination
against women,particularly in improving their access to
land,credit,and input and output markets,and in fostering
the education of girls.Similarly,in areas such as employ-
ment creation,natural resource protection,and gover-
nance reform,some countries have initiated encouraging
measures,but much more progress is needed.The most
successful reformers have been countries without war
or civil unrest and with reform processes characterized
by strong political leadership and a commitment to
reforms with wide domestic participation and ownership.
It is clear that peace and security are prerequisites for
development and thus for poverty reduction. In coun-
tries that have been plagued by conflict and war, devel-
opment has been pushed back years, if not decades.
Political will and the commitment to reform within
a framework of good governance are crucial features of
successful reform and development. Experience has also
shown that reform processes are most successful with
the wide involvement and participation of people at all
levels of society and across different organizations and
social groups. For poverty reduction in particular, civil
society and private sector groups representing the poor
need to be included in the consultation, decision-
making, and implementation processes.
Capacity building must be a high priority. The very
recent and still patchy experience of African countries
with PRSP implementation demonstrates that capacity
building requires more attention and more resources.
3Photo credits:
Cover photo © 2004 Panos Pictures/Neil Cooper 
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This brief was prepared for the conference on "Assuring Food and Nutrition Security in Africa by 2020:
Prioritizing Actions, Strengthening Actors, and Facilitating Partnerships," held in Kampala, Uganda,April 1-3,
2004 <www.ifpri.org/2020africaconference>.The conference was organized by the 2020 Vision Initiative of the
International Food Policy Research Institute, hosted by The Government of Uganda, and cosponsored by:
European Commission (EC) • Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le
développement (CIRAD) • Centre Technique de Coopération Agricole et Rurale (CTA) • Deutsche
Welthungerhilfe (German Agro Action) • Development Cooperation Ireland • Federal Ministry of Economic 
Co-operation and Development, Germany, with Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ),
and Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung (InWEnt) • Ministère des Affaires étrangères,France • Regional
Land Management Unit (RELMA) • The Rockefeller Foundation • Sasakawa Africa Association • United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) • World Food Programme (WFP) • World Vision International
The views expressed in this brief are those of the author(s) and not necessarily endorsed by or representative of IFPRI or of
the cosponsoring or supporting organizations.
Copyright © 2004 International Food Policy Research Institute. All rights reserved. Sections of this brief may be reproduced
without the express permission of, but with acknowledgment to, the International Food Policy Research Institute.
Contact ifpri-copyright@cgiar.org for permission to reprint.
www.ifpri.org/2020africaconference
Greater capacity and competence are required at all
levels of African administration.
Agriculture should be returned to the top of the
development agenda, given the critical role it plays in
African livelihoods.The priority given to agriculture and
water in NEPAD and the Maputo 2003 Declaration of
the Heads of States of the African Union is encouraging
in this respect. It is essential for the World Bank and
bilateral donors to follow the lead of African states and
support agricultural development. Prioritizing agricul-
ture cannot be achieved without making additional
resources available to these programs. Countries need
to act on the Maputo Declaration’s target of allocating
10 percent of each country’s budget to agriculture.
Governments and donors face a joint challenge to
achieve greater cohesion in their approaches to the vari-
ous strategies promoted by,and the requirements of,the
international community. For example,monitoring
poverty reduction in a given country is important within
the PRSP process,but care should be taken not to over-
burden that country’s capacity and institutions.Too
often,donors have instituted reporting and monitoring
requirements that place their internal institutional needs
ahead of the needs of the recipient country.Donors
should agree on a coordinated and unified monitoring
and evaluation system that serves primarily to improve
policy implementation in recipient countries.
Adequate attention should be devoted to micro-level
activities.The project approach,which emphasized the
funding of specific development activities,dominated the
development scene in Africa until the 1980s,but its limi-
tations in nonconducive policy environments soon
became obvious.Deficiencies in project environments
resulted in a 180-degree shift in approach toward lending
for policy programs,as opposed to extending loans for
projects.This shift forced the private sectors of the tar-
get countries to take up micro-level activities.Improving
policy environments and strengthening institutional
frameworks are necessary aims and remain a high pri-
ority,but development only occurs if investment,innova-
tion,and action are carried out on farms,in households,
and in villages.This means that development strategists
should reaffirm the value of the project approach.
Finally, the design and implementation of good poli-
cies are dependent on clear, relevant, and consistent
policy objectives, financial resource availability, and
human and institutional capacity. Even under such ideal
circumstances, these processes often involve risks to
the political and social stability of target countries.The
speed of reform and the implementation of policies and
programs should be appropriate to each country’s
political and social absorptive capacity.
For further reading: C. Eicher,“Flashback: Fifty Years of
Donor Aid to African Agriculture,” presented at the
International Policy Conference “Successes in African
Agriculture: Building the Future,” Pretoria, South Africa, 1–3
December 2003; F. Owusu,“Pragmatism and the Gradual
Shift from Dependency to Neoliberalism:The World Bank,
African Leaders and Development Policy in Africa,” World
Development 31 (2003): 1655–1672.
Note:This brief is drawn from the larger report by Franz Heidhues
(heidhues@uni-hohenheim.de),Achi Atsain, Hezron Nyangito, Martine
Padilla, Gérard Ghersi, and Jean-Charles Le Vallée, Development
Strategies and Food and Nutrition Security in Africa:An Assessment, 2020
Discussion Paper 38 (Washington, D.C.: IFPRI, 2004).
Franz Heidhues is professor at the University of Hohenheim, Center for Tropical Agriculture, in Stuttgart, Germany;Achi Atsain is professor of economics and
econometrics at the University of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, and senior research fellow at the Ivorian Center for Economic and Social Research; Hezron Omare
Nyangito is a principal policy analyst and head of the Productive Sector Division at the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA); Martine
Padilla is a development economist and policy analyst at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute in Montpellier, France; Gérard Ghersi is director of the
International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies at the Institute of Montpellier; and Jean-Charles Le Vallée is an agricultural economist,
agronomist, ecologist, and nutritionist.

Assessing development strategies and Africa's food and nutrition security

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