The meteorological education of general aviation pilots is discussed in terms of the definitions and concepts of learning and good educational procedures. The effectiveness of the metoeorological program in the training of general aviations pilots is questioned. It is suggested that flight instructors provide real experience during low ceilings and visibilities, and that every pilot receiving an instrument rating should experience real instrument flight

Colomy, J. R.

English

NASA Technical Reports Server

METEOROLOGICAL INPUT 
TO GENERAL AVIATION PILOT TRAINING 
John R. Colomy 
St. Cloud State University 
Analyzing meteorological input to general aviation pilot training 
programs requires an examination of the present effectiveness of the 
meteorological education process and the examination of the instructor's 
preparation, the "symbol set" utilized in the communication, and the 
student's experience in meteorology. 
be presented based upon the analysis. 
Specific recommendations may then 
In order to be a safe and proficient pilot one must develop effec- 
tive, cognitive, and psychomotor data in the "human computer" through 
education. 
affect flight operation, but without experience in the skills involved 
this author would seriously doubt their ability to operate the system. 
On the other hand, an individual may be "God's gift to aviation" in 
skill, but without a knowledge o f  procedures, meteorology, systems de- 
sign, and performance parameters, this author would doubt if they would 
be safe pilots. Knowledge and skill are equal requirements for safe 
and proficient pilot operation. 
Persons may be very knowledgeable about the factors that 
One may evaluate, to some extent, our present educational effec- 
tiveness by examining the statistics of those individuals who have not 
been successful in avoiding difficulties (i .e., weather-related accidents). 
One must realize that these statistics do not reflect those individuals 
who have survived a "close encounter of the terrifying kind" with a re- 
solve to never again attempt a flight in that type of meteorological 
phenomena. 
m e  Annual Revieu of Aircraft  Accident Data for the general avia- 
tion calendar year 1977, published by the National Transportation 
Safety Board, indicates a total accident count for 1976 of 4,793 and 
a total accident Count for 1977 of 4,286. Of 1,490 accidents involving 
injury, 239 occurred in weather that was below minimums. 
total of 317 accidents in IFR weather and 27 in weather that was below 
minimums. The total accidents involving small fixed-wing aircraft were 
3,842 with 875 involving weather as a cause or factor in the accident. 
Weather was involved in 22.7% of the reported small fixed-wing acci- 
dents. The latest specific information available on weather-related 
accidents is for 1976 in Brief of Fatal Accidents InvoZving Weather as 
a Cause/Factop, published by the National Transportation Safety Board. 
The report indicates a decrease in the weather-related accidents per 
hours flown since 1967, but also indicates 908 accidents involving 
There was a 
J 30 
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19800006376 2020-03-21T20:35:50+00:00Z
weather in 1976. The briefs presented on weather-related accidents 
indicate that many pilots had failed to maintain aircraft control. 
Weather did not directly cause these accidents ; pilot disorientation 
was the cause. The disorientation was induced by lack of visual refer- 
ence and not necessarily by the severity of the weather. The lack of 
pilot understanding of the effects of meteorological phenomena on pilot 
operation is evident. 
The indications are that the meteorological input into general 
aviation pilot training programs should, indeed must, be improved. 
order to arrive a.t a practical set of recommendations, the present 
"system" must be evaluated. 
In 
The "FAA approved" definition of learning is a "change in behavior 
brought about through experience." This author would add to this def- 
inition that the experience may be real or imagined. Most educators 
mix the real and imagined experiences for their students. Some disci- 
plines do not lend themselves to the use of real experience in the 
educational process and there may be other restrictions (staff, facili- 
ties, budgets) that prohibit the educator from involving therstudent 
in a real experience during the educational process. This does not 
indicate, however, that the learning experience was not a valuable one 
for the student if the imagined experience was a well-contrived one. 
I think that one would agree that the emotional experience one had 
during the viewing of Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho was indeed a very "real" 
one. 
a means of substituting imagined experience for real experience and this 
has proved to be most effective. 
In recent years the industry has utilized aircraft simulators as 
Education has many objectives to include: the discovery of new 
knowledge, the dissemination of existing knowledge, and the translation 
of facts and knowledge into action on the part of the student. Meteor- 
ological research involves the utilization of technology to expand our 
knowledge of the ongoing process. The specifics of the meteorological 
education system that this paper examines involve the dissemination 
and translation phases of the process. 
Meteorological education is a communications system involving a 
sender (educator), a set of symbols (vehicle), and a receiver (student). 
It is vital to the effectiveness of the individual's education that the 
system maintains its integrity. Each "block" is vital to the structure 
of the system. Education is a lifelong process and, therefore, one must 
not restrict the examination of meteorological education to the initial 
"precertification" classroom phases of pilot training. 
Professionalism i s  a must for the educator to be effective. This 
applies to all meteorological instructors, be they classroom teachers, 
flight or ground instructors, or pilot briefers. Professionalism re- 
quires extended training and preparation; study and research; logical 
and accurate thinking; good judgment; and, perhaps most important, 
individual commitment to become the best that one is capable of becoming 
while operating within the system. 
31 
.I 
The general aviation industry is confronted with several problem 
areas concerning flight and ground instruction in general and in 
meteorological education specifically. Historically the training and 
preparation of a pilot to become an instructor has been minimal, Very 
few flight and ground instructors have received an education in the 
teaching process similar to that which is required for teacher certi- 
fication of elementary or secondary educators. The recertification 
requirements are minimal compared with the ongoing education that is 
required of an instructor in a school system. The typical exposure 
to the theory of education involves a memorization of the FZZght 
Instructor's Handbook in order to pass the FAA FundamentaZs of Instruc- 
t ion  written examination. The applicant may receive some classroom or 
individualized instruction in the educational process, but this is 
usually conducted by another instructor who was trained using the same 
approach. 
process among the majority of flight and ground instructors. 
The result has been a minimal knowledge of the educational 
The problem is compounded by the specific background in various 
disciplines that is required for competent instruction. The meteoro- 
logical background of most instructors is limited to the exposure dur- 
ing initial pilot certification (i .e., the meteorological sections of 
the private and instrument courses). 
ing the chapter" to instruction received from another pilot who is a 
product of the same system. Few pilots are fortunate enough to have 
received instruction, in depth, from professional meteorologists or 
individuals with extensive education in this area. 
tion in meteorology is not a requirement for the typical flight or 
ground instructor. 
This background varies from "read- 
Continuing educa- 
Another area of concern is the transitory nature of the majority 
of general aviation instructors. 
tion are utilizing the instructor position as a bridge to a career in 
corporate or airline operation. 
viduals are inadequate instructors, but to indicate that the cadre 
does not have an average experience level that is found in the secon- 
dary school system, for example. 
uals are more interested in building time than they are in teaching 
technique or study and research in the required disciplines. They, 
in many cases, are not interested in becoming the best instructors 
that they are capable of becoming while they are involved in flight 
instruction. 
Many individuals who seek certifica- 
This is not to say that these indi- 
Unfortunately, many of these individ- 
The recent increase in airline flight crew positions has depleted 
the military, corporate, and general aviation pool of pilots. 
is currently a shortage of flight instructors in many parts o f  the 
country. 
ing it, primarily because of economics (i .e.,,income). 
aspect of this shortage will be an increase in the average income of 
a general aviation instructor, which, most individuals feel, is long 
overdue. 
There 
More individuals are leaving the profession than are enter- 
The positive 
32 
There i s  a lso  a problem area i n  instructor education tha t  re la tes  
School teachers must complete a period of time i n  t o  quali ty control.  
a practice teaching s i tuat ion fo r  ce r t i f i ca t ion  before graduation. 
There is  no such provision fo r  the general aviation instructor.  The 
practice teaching experience involved i n  instructor training is usually 
limited t o  the student instructor practicing presentations t o  the 
instructing instructor.  The student instructor usually has no oppor- 
t u n i  ty fo r  a real experience of teaching students under supervision. 
Evaluation of an applicant 's  instructing ab i l i t y  is  limited t o  the 
cer t i f ica t ion practical examination, which i s  a minimal look a t  the 
applicant a t  best.  
Those individuals that  educate the general aviation p i lo t  i n  the 
present and future trends of the meteorological system ( i  .e., meteor- 
ologists  and Flight Service Station br iefers)  are  c r i t i c a l  t o  general 
aviation operations. These educators must also have extensive prepar- 
ation,  t raining,  and continuing education. The f a c t  that  i t  is  possible 
t o  obtain two dif ferent  briefings from two dif ferent  briefers a t  the 
same F l i g h t  Service Station w i t h i n  a short time frame i s  an indication 
that  the b r ie fe r ' s  education should be examined. 
The sender of communications must be knowledgeable of the receiver 's  
I t  i s  obvious that  there is  a necessity t o  u t i l i z e  a set of 
background i n  order t o  establish a s e t  of symbols t o  be uti l ized i n  the 
process. 
symbols i n  this communication that  have the same meaning t o  the receiver 
as they do t o  the sender. This "symbol s e t "  i s  c r i t i c a l  t o  the educa- 
to r  (teacher and br iefer)  i f  he i s  going t o  be effect ive  while p a i n t i n g  
a weather picture fo r  the student o r  p i lo t .  
received as meaning a thunderstorm or as meaning the device found on 
the f ront  and back of an automobile, for example. 
The term "bumper" may be 
An examination of the present symbol s e t  reveals a mixing of mean- 
i n g s  and symbols that  are  d i f f i c u l t  t o  learn, eas i ly  forgotten and 
eas i ly  misunderstood. 
represent s t a tu t e  miles (v i s ib i l i t y )  , some numbers to represent nautical 
miles (wind velocity) ,  and some numbers t o  represent fee t  (RVR values). 
The terminal forecast  will omit a v i s i b i l i t y  number i f  the forecast i s  
fo r  v i s i b i l i t y  greater  than six miles and will omit a wind group i f  
the forecast winds are  less t h a n  10 knots. T h e  area forecast does not 
u t i l i z e  the same format as the terminal forecast ,  b u t  i s  prepared i n  
a "notehand" presentation u t i l i z i n g  contractions. 
The sequence report u t i l i zes  some numbers t o  
The weather charts u t i l i z e  di f ferent  presentations depending upon 
the type of chart or  the level i t  represents. The l ines  ut i l ized on 
a surface analysis chart represent isobars, the l ines  on a weather de- 
piction chart represent res t r i c t ions  to  v i s i b i l i t y  or cei l ing,  and the 
l ines on a radar summary chart represent areas of radar echo return. 
The l ines on a lsw level s ignif icant  weather prognostic chart are u t i l - i  
ized t o  represent cei l ing and v i s ib i l i t y  res t r i c t ions ,  freezing levels,  
turbulence areas, and i soba r s .  The h i g h  level s ignificant  weather 
prognostic charts i l l u s t r a t e  surface locations of pressure centers and 
33 
fronts, but present cloud cover only above 24,000 feet MSL (400 milli- 
bars). The cloud cover is described with numbers representing eighths 
of coverage instead of the surface chart symbol which represents tenths 
of coverage. The constant pressure charts may or may not present 
temperature-dew point spread, or isotachs, depending upon the level 
represented. The contour levels vary and the height is presented in 
meters. 
The term ''VFR" (Visual Flight Rules) may indicate visibility is 
greater than five miles and ceiling is greater than 3,000 feet when 
used in a forecast. VFR may also indicate a visibility range of one 
to five miles depending upon altitude and type of airspace when used 
in reference to the Federal Aviation Regulations. 
The difficulties encountered by educators and students alike in 
mastering the symbol set are compounded by the dissemination of the 
communications. Recent budget reductions have eliminated some offices 
of the National Weather Service and curtailed staffing at others. 
Flight Service Stations have also received budget cutbacks. 
in many locations, does not have ready access to the meteorological 
communications system, much less the opportunity for an in-person 
briefing. 
of a communication: physical organism, basic need, goals and values, 
self concept, time and opportunity, and recognition of the element of 
threat. One o f  the most important factors is motivation. Does the 
meteorological communication system positively motivate the student to 
learn? Does the system create the desire to learn about meteorology 
or does it force the student to learn only what is necessary to pass 
a written examination? 
The pilot, 
There are several facets to the receiver's (student's) perception 
This author questions the effectiveness of the experience in 
meteorology that is currently available in general aviation pilot 
training programs. 
out any experience in low ceiling or low visibility operations. The 
regulations, however, then allow that individual to carry passengers 
in as low a visibility as one mile while only remaining clear of clouds. 
Pilots may receive the instrument rating without ever making a flight 
into a cloud or storm system. 
o f  structural ice accumulation and other conditions without experience? 
Simulator technology is providing the student with the opportunity to 
experience a "real" contrived situation, but is not currently avail- 
able to the general aviation pilot. 
It is possible for a pilot to be certificated with- 
How does one understand the effects 
Is there a need to change the meteorological communication sys- 
tem? This author belives that change for improvement is feasible and 
necessary. 
Historically, most flight and ground instructors in general avia- 
tion came from the pilot ranks. They were pilots first and through a 
i 34 
minimal amount of training became ins t ructors .  Perhaps the industry 
should encourage universi t ies t o  develop a professional aviation i n -  
s t ructor  curriculum tha t  would parallel those curricula currently used 
t o  educate secondary school teachers. This would take those i n d i v i d-  
uals that  a re  by nature teachers and educate them i n  aviation. T h i s  
would provide the industry w i t h  a s table  cadre of professional educa- 
tors  that  a re  well educated i n  teaching techniques as well as i n  the 
dixciplines of aviation. Advanced coursework i n  meteorology could 
be a graduation requirement. In addition, a practice teaching exper- 
ience requirement would provide the student instructors w i t h  ' 'real" 
teaching experiences and an evaluation of the i r  knowledge and teach- 
ing technique. 
An FAA regulatory change requiring newly ce r t i f i ed  instructors 
t o  teach under the supervisi\on of selected chief f l i g h t  instructors 
fo r  the f i r s t  year might also be appropriate. The senior instructor 
would  a s s i s t  the new teachers i n  the i r  f l i g h t  and ground instruction,  
evaluate the new ins t ruc tor ' s  students, and make recommendations for 
permanent ce r t i f i ca t ion .  
The symbol s e t  u t i l ized i n  meteorological communication should 
be reevaluated by NOAA and educators t o  improve the consistency of 
meaning of the symbols u t i l ized.  The objective i s  to  communicate and 
not t o  confuse. 
t o r  (teacher and br iefer)  and replace confusion w i t h  understanding on 
the p a r t  of the student. 
A consistent s e t  of symbols would a s s i s t  the educa- 
New methods of communication dispersal u t i l iz ing today's technol- 
ogy must be developed. 
displayed data should be expanded. The development o f  higher resolu- 
tion pictures and an improved dispersal system fo r  them should be 
pursued. 
The use of computer-stored cathode ray tube 
Educators must develop a meteorological presentation t h a t  posi- 
t ively motivates a student t o  learn. 
r i a l  i n  such a way that  implies memorization t o  pass a t e s t ,  the 
"senders" should attempt t o  develop a desire to  learn on the part  of 
the "receivers. 'I 
Instead of presenting the mate- 
T h i s  author believes that  much can be done t o  improve the meteor- 
ological experience the current system provides. The use of CRT d i s -  
plays incorporating computer-generated visual references on general 
aviation simulators should be developed. These displays have the 
capabil i ty of depicting various v i s i b i l i t y  and  cei l ing conditions and 
would provide the student  w i t h  the experience i n  operation d u r i n g  
marginal weather. 
Video tape programs depicting i n - f l i g h t  meteorological encounters 
would be valuable i n  teaching what f l i g h t  under various si tuations 
is l ike .  
developed thunderstorm i s  l ike .  
I t  i s  d i f f i c u l t  t o  teach w h a t  a f l i g h t  i n  or  around a well- 
I t  i s  d i f f i c u l t  to  teach the "p i lo t  
J 
35 
ter ror"  developed when encountering moderate ice  i n  an a i r c r a f t  not 
equipped w i t h  deice systems. Well-structured video programs incor- 
porating p i l o t  comments could be very effective.  
Flight instructors should a lso  attempt t o  provide real experience 
One does not i n  f l i g h t  operation during low ceil ings o r  v i s i b i l i t i e s .  
have t o  operate i n  a thunderstorm to  receive an impression of the energy 
involved. 
should have some experience i n  real imstrument f l i gh t .  
Certainly every pi'lot who receives an instrument rat ing 
Can the system be improved? Yes. Will improvement i n  the meteor- 
ological education system improve flying safety? Yes. 
sponsi b i  1 i ty  of the system managers t o  seek the necessary improvements. 
I t  will benefit a l l .  
I t  is  the re- 
36 


Meteorological Input to General Aviation Pilot Training

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

NASA Technical Reports Server