The mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations (NASA) human research program is to advance safe human spaceflight. This involves conducting experiments, collecting data, and analyzing data. The data are longitudinal and result from a relatively few number of subjects; typically 10  20. A longitudinal study refers to an investigation where participant outcomes and possibly treatments are collected at multiple follow-up times. Standard statistical designs such as mean regression with random effects and mixedeffects regression are inadequate for such data because the population is typically not approximately normally distributed. Hence, more advanced data analysis methods are necessary. This research focuses on four such methods for longitudinal data analysis: the recently proposed linear quantile mixed models (lqmm) by Geraci and Bottai (2013), quantile regression, multilevel mixedeffects linear regression, and robust regression. This research also provides computational algorithms for longitudinal data that scientists can directly use for human spaceflight and other longitudinal data applications, then presents statistical evidence that verifies which method is best for specific situations. This advances the study of longitudinal data in a broad range of applications including applications in the sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics fields

Feiveson, Alan

Glenn, Nancy L.

NASA Technical Reports Server

Modeling Longitudinal Data Containing
Non–Normal Within Subject Errors
Alan Feiveson, Ph. D.
alan.h.feiveson@nasa.gov
Biomedical Research and Environmental Sciences Division
NASA JSC
Nancy L. Glenn, Ph. D.
nglenn@alumni.rice.edu
Department of Mathematical Sciences
Texas Southern University
August 26, 2013
1
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20140003930 2019-08-29T14:19:47+00:00Z
Abstract
The mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s
(NASA) human research program is to advance safe human spaceflight.
This involves conducting experiments, collecting data, and analyzing data.
The data are longitudinal and result from a relatively few number of sub-
jects; typically 10 – 20. A longitudinal study refers to an investigation
where participant outcomes and possibly treatments are collected at mul-
tiple follow-up times. Standard statistical designs such as mean regression
with random effects and mixed–effects regression are inadequate for such
data because the population is typically not approximately normally dis-
tributed. Hence, more advanced data analysis methods are necessary.
This research focuses on four such methods for longitudinal data analy-
sis: the recently proposed linear quantile mixed models (lqmm) by Geraci
and Bottai (2013), quantile regression, multilevel mixed–effects linear re-
gression, and robust regression. This research also provides computational
algorithms for longitudinal data that scientists can directly use for human
spaceflight and other longitudinal data applications, then presents statis-
tical evidence that verifies which method is best for specific situations.
This advances the study of longitudinal data in a broad range of applica-
tions including applications in the sciences, technology, engineering and
mathematics fields.
2
1 Introduction
This research presents and improves upon computational algorithms for the
analysis of longitudinal repeated measures data. Longitudinal data, which com-
prise repeated measurements of the same subjects over time, arise frequently
in in a broad range of applications including biomedical sciences. Statistical
methods for analyzing longitudinal data include the cutting edge linear quan-
tile mixed models (lqmm) by Geraci and Bottai (2013), and standard methods
such as quantile regression, multilevel mixed–effects linear regression, and ro-
bust regression. Several key algorithms for implementing these four methods
using the popular statistical software packages R , S–PLUS and Stata are used
for simulation studies. Major codes are written in the form of R , S–PLUS and
Stata functions which can be directly used for real data applications and simu-
lation studies. Understanding the conceptual differences among these methods
is important to their proper application.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes a popular model used
for longitudinal data, the mixed model. Section 3 describes estimation methods
for longitudinal data. Simulation results are contained in Section 4. Indications
for future research are in Section 5, and concluding remarks are in Section ??.
2 Mixed Model
A mixed model is defined as a nonlinear statistical model that contains mixed
effects (Demidenko, 2004). A mixed effects model contains both fixed effects
and random effects. A fixed effect model represents observed quantities in terms
of explanatory variables treated as if the quantities were nonrandom. Unlike
classical statistics where observations are drawn from independent, identically
distributed populations, mixed model observations are independent between
levels or clusters. However, observations within clusters are dependent because
they belong to the same subpopulation. Hence, there are two sources of varia-
tion, between clusters and within clusters.
To illustrate the difference between modeling data with least squares re-
gression versus a mixed model, Figures 1 and 2 present the same data on two
different graphs. The horizontal axis represents measurement time, the vertical
axis represents the measurement on each subject. Measurement times range
from 0 to 7. The straight line in both figures represents the overall regression
line. Each additional line in Figure 2 individually connects the measurements
for each of the 10 subjects. For example, the line with the highest y values
connect all measurements for subject 5 for the seven time periods.
A classical statistical model is
yk = α+ βxk + ǫk (1)
where (xk, yk) is an observation, α is the intercept, β is the slope, ǫk represents
independent random errors with zero mean and constant variance. A mixed
model is
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x1
y overall regression line
Figure 1: Graph depicts overall regression line for simulated data.
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Figure 2: Graph depicts overall regression line. Additional lines individually
connect measurements for each of the 10 subjects.
4
Method Function Longitudinal Quantile Complexity
linear quantile mixed model lqmm yes conditional high
quantile regression qreg no unconditional moderate
mixed effects linear regression xtmixed yes no moderate
robust regression mmregress no no very high
Table 1: Table contains estimation methods, named functions, whether there
is an inherent longitudinal model, the type of quantile estimation, and compu-
tational complexity as measured by relative computational time. The function
lqmm is designed for longitudinal conditional quantiles, qreg is for quantile re-
gression, xtmixed is for multilevel means and variances, and mmregress is for
robust central tendency.
yij = αi + βixij + ǫij (2)
where the observation (xij , yij) is the i
th subject’s, jth measurement, αi is a
subject specific intercept, βi is a subject specific slope, and ǫij is an error term.
3 Estimation Methods
Standard statistical designs such as mean regression with random effects and
mixed–effects regression are inadequate to analyze longitudinal data because the
errors are typically not approximately normally distributed. Additionally, stan-
dard quantile regression is inadequate since it does not include random effects.
Linear quantile mixed models by Geraci and Bottai (2007) incorporates random
effects in the model. It is a robust alternative to mean regression with random
effects, which allows estimation of an entire family of conditional quantile func-
tions. Thus, providing a more complete statistical analysis of the stochastic
relationships among random variables (Koenker, 2000). The estimation meth-
ods and models are summarized in Table 1.
The estimation method lqmm is an R function designed for linear quantile
mixed models. A quantile divides an ordered dataset into equally sized subsets.
A quantile regression model provides estimates that approximate the conditional
median and other quantiles of the response variable given certain predictor
variables.
Figure 3 presents quantile regression graphs. For example, 75 percent of the
measurement are below the top line, and 25 percent are above. The solid middle
line represents the median. The broken middle line represents the least squares
regression line, and the bottom line represents the 25th percentile.
The benefits of quantile regression include the fact that it makes no distri-
butional assumptions about the error terms in the model. It is also robust to
extreme points in the response variable.
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2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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10
15
Subject
M
ea
su
re
m
en
t
Regression Quantiles
Figure 3: Graph depicts quantile regression lines. The top line represents the
75th percentile. The solid middle line represents the median. The broken middle
line represents the least squares regression line, and the bottom line represents
the 25th percentile.
6
The remaining three methods are in Stata. The function qreg performs
quantile regression, xtmixed is designed for mixed effects linear regression, and
mmregress is designed for robust regression.
A main objective of this research is to determine which of the four methods
in Table 1 is the best method for modeling a dataset that involves multiple
measurements on one subject over a period of time.
4 Results
Initial results, conducted through a simulation study, determine the efficiency of
the models. Efficiency of the models is judged by bias and estimation accuracy.
Error magnitude is judged by the standard deviation, mean or median absolute
error, and quartiles / distributions of errors or absolute errors. Data were
generated based on the following random slope model:
yij = 50 + ui + (β1 + βi)xj + ǫij , (3)
where
subject i = 1, . . . , nk, k = 1, 2, sample sizes n1 = 15, n2 = 30, and measurement
j = 1, . . . , 4. The variable β1 equals the values 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, and 4. The
parameter βi represents the random slope of the i
th subject. The xj = j − 1.
The variable ui represents the random intercept of the i
th subject. Probability
distributions considered for ui are:
(i) normal distribution N(0, σ2u)
(ii) asymmetric Laplace distribution ALD(0.5, σu)
where
σu = 2, 7, 12 The variable ǫij represents the residual error term associated with
the ith subject’s jth measurement. Three different probability distributions were
considered for the error term:
(i) asymmetric Laplace, ALD(0.5, σe)
(ii) chi–squared with 3 degrees of freedom, χ2(3)
(iii) t–distribution with 3 degrees of freedom, t(3)
The first distribution is symmetric, the second is skewed, and the third is
symmetric with heavier tails than the normal distribution. These distributions
were chosen to help determine the effects of the shape of the residual’s distri-
bution on estimation accuracy.
The absolute error, which is the absolute value of the difference between the
value of the coefficient and the estimate of the coefficient |β1− βˆ1|, is computed
for each method. A log rank test for equality of functions was conducted to si-
multaneously compare the four cumulative distribution functions of the absolute
errors.
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0 .5 1 1.5 2
|b1 − be1|
lqmm mmr
qreg xtm
1 − CDF
Absolute Errors Beta
Figure 4: Graph depicts complementary cumulative distribution of absolute
errors.
The p–value is approximately zero, indicating a difference in absolute error
among the methods. Figure 4 indicates that method with the smallest absolute
error is xtmixed. This is followed by lqmm, mmregress, and qreg. Further
studies will investigate the variance. A Kolomogrov–Smirnov test could have
been used for comparing any two methods, but not all four methods at once.
5 Future Research
Future research will also answer the following questions:
1. What are effects of small sample sizes on estimation accuracy for each
method?
2. What are alternative methods for determining the variance–covariance
matrix of the lqmm parameter estimates? The variance is a measure of
the dispersion or spread of estimates for the parameter. The covariance
indicates how two parameters vary together.
3. What are benefits of determining conditional quantiles for quantiles other
than the median? A quantile divides an ordered dataset into equally sized
subsets. A conditional quantile function is a model in which the quantiles
of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable are expressed as
functions of observed independent variables.
4. What are effects of not including random effects in a quantile regression
model? Random effect vary across subjects while fixed effects are constant.
5. How do analysis results of the four methods differ when the model differs
from Equation (3).
6. How do the methods compare when using real data?
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-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2
ALD/N ALD/X3 ALD/t3
N/N N/X3 N/t3
b1_lqmm - be1
Graphs by group(udist edist)
Figure 5: Graph depicts the error for the regression parameter for various com-
binations of the ui distribution and the ǫij using lqmm for estimation.
6 Summary
This research has three main objectives:
1. Present models for analyzing longitudinal data where within subject errors
are not normally distributed.
2. Determine which method is best in specific situations.
3. Provide implementation algorithms in Stata, R, and Splus.
These objective were carried out through simulation studies presented in Sec-
tion 4. Preliminary results indicate that the method with the smallest absolute
error for the coefficients is xtmixed. This is followed by lqmm, mmregress,
and qreg. Future research will focus on the variance-covariance matrix of the
coefficients as well other research questions posed in Section 5.
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2
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-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2
ALD/N ALD/X3 ALD/t3
N/N N/X3 N/t3
b1_qreg - be1
Graphs by group(udist edist)
Figure 6: Graph depicts the error for the regression parameter for various combi-
nations of the ui distribution and the ǫij using quantile regression for estimation.
0
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3
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-1 -.5 0 .5 1 -1 -.5 0 .5 1 -1 -.5 0 .5 1
ALD/N ALD/X3 ALD/t3
N/N N/X3 N/t3
b1_mmr - be1
Graphs by group(udist edist)
Figure 7: Graph depicts the error for the regression parameter for various com-
binations of the ui distribution and the ǫij using mmregress for estimation.
10
References
Geraci, Marco and Bottai, Matteo (2013), Linear Quantile Mixed Models,
R package version 1.03, http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lqmm.
Geraci, Marco and Bottai, Matteo (2007), Quantile regression for longitudinal
data using the asymmetric Laplace distribution, Biostatistics 8(1),
140–154.
Koenker, Roger (2000), Quantile Regression, International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences.
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