In this lesson students will discover what causes extreme storms such as the Portland Gale of 1898 and the Halloween Nor'easter of 1991. They will identify and explain three factors that contributed to extreme storm conditions in the northwest Atlantic Ocean, off New England, discover how to obtain real-time and historical meteorological data, and compare and contrast extra-tropical cyclones, tropical cyclones, and hybrid storms. This hands-on activity uses on-line data resources and includes: focus questions, learning objectives, teaching time, audio/visual materials needed, background information, learning procedures, evaluations, extensions, as well as resources and student handouts. Educational levels: High school

Mel Goodwin

English

Digital Library for Earth System Education

1FOCUS
Extreme storms
GRADE LEVEL
9-12 (Earth Science)
FOCUS QUESTION
What causes extreme storms such as the Portland 
Gale of 1898 and the Halloween Nor’easter of 
1991?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Students will be able to identify and explain three 
factors that contributed to extreme storm conditions 
during the Halloween Nor’easter of 1991.
Students will understand how to obtain real-time 
and historical meteorological data.
Students will be able to compare and contrast: 
extra-tropical cyclone, tropical cyclone, hybrid 
storm.
MATERIALS
 Internet access for student research
 Overhead transparency of the eastern United 
States
AUDIO/VISUAL MATERIALS 
 Overhead projector
TEACHING TIME
One 45-minute class period, plus time for student 
research
SEATING ARRANGEMENT
Classroom style
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STUDENTS
30
KEY WORDS
Portland Gale of 1898
Halloween Nor’easter of 1991
Perfect storm
Nor’easter
Oceanographic data buoy
Trough
Extra-tropical cyclone
Tropical cyclone
Hybrid storm
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
On Thanksgiving Saturday, November 26, 1898, 
the passenger steamship Portland left Boston 
Harbor with 192 passengers and crew bound for 
Portland, Maine. During the night, New England 
was hit by a monster storm moving up the Atlantic 
coast with northeasterly winds gusting to 90 mph, 
dense snow, and temperatures well below freezing. 
At 5:45 a.m. on the morning of November 27, four 
short blasts on a ship’s steam whistle told the keep-
er of the Race Point Life-Saving Station that a vessel 
was in trouble. Seventeen hours later, life jackets, 
debris, and human bodies washed ashore near the 
the Race Point station, confirming that the Portland 
and everyone aboard had been lost in one of New 
England’s worst maritime disasters.
For 90 years, the location of the Portland wreck 
Steamship Portland
X-Storms
2Steamship Portland  – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
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oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
Steamship Portland – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms
was unknown, despite intense and continuing 
public interest. Then in April 1989, members of 
the Historical Maritime Group of New England 
found wreckage more than 300 feet deep that they 
were certain had been the Portland. Because of 
the depth, however, the discoverers were unable 
to obtain photographs or other evidence that 
could confirm their find. Thirteen years later, on 
August 29, 2002, the U.S. Commerce Department’s 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 
(NOAA) confirmed that the wreck of the Portland 
had been found within NOAA’s Stellwagen Bank 
National Marine Sanctuary. Using side-scan sonar 
and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), scientists 
obtained high-quality video and side-scan images 
in a joint research mission of the Stellwagen Bank 
National Marine Sanctuary and the National 
Undersea Research Center at the University of 
Connecticut.
Storms can usually be classified into one of two 
types:  extratropical cyclones and tropical cyclones. 
Extra-tropical cyclones are “ordinary” storms 
formed by the intersection of warm and cold air 
masses, and can form over land and water in mid-
latitudes at all times of the year. The temperature 
difference or gradient between the air masses 
is the major source of energy for these storms. 
Tropical cyclones include hurricanes and typhoons, 
and are formed mainly during summer and fall 
over warm tropical oceans. Warm humid aid in 
these regions is loaded with water vapor that con-
denses as it rises into cooler air in the atmosphere. 
Condensation releases latent heat of vaporization, 
and this heat is the primary source of energy for 
tropical cyclones.
Occasionally, an extratropical cyclone will develop 
some of the characteristics of a tropical cyclone. 
This hybrid storm forms when thunderstorms begin 
to generate near the storm’s center. When this hap-
pens, the central core of the storm is warmed as 
latent heat is released by water vapor condensing 
in the thunderstorms. Pressure in the core of the 
storm drops—sometimes very rapidly—and cre-
ates gale-force or hurricane force winds. The rapid 
drop in pressure is called “explosive deepening;” 
if the pressure steadily falls one millibar per hour 
for 24 hours or more, the storm is called a “bomb 
cyclone.” At the same time, a tight temperature 
gradient is maintained on the northern side of the 
storm (in the northern hemisphere).
Typical weather patterns in New England states 
during late October and November are conducive 
to the formation of massive storms. At this time of 
the year, large cold air masses from Canada cross 
the midwestern states on a regular basis. At the 
same time, the Atlantic Ocean retains its summer 
heat and these warm waters sometimes spawn 
hurricanes. When the east-moving cold air masses 
encounter the warm, humid oceanic air, the result 
is what New Englanders call “Nor’easters:” storms 
that are often severe, and are often the cause of 
maritime disasters.
The Gale of 1989 (sometimes called the “Portland 
Gale”) began as three air masses: an area of high 
pressure over the Ohio valley, a weak low-pres-
sure area near Minnesota, and another low over 
the western Gulf of Mexico. By the evening of 
November 24, the high pressure area and Great 
Lakes low had both moved eastward. With the 
counterclockwise (cyclonic) circulation typical of air 
masses in the northern hemisphere, the Great Lakes 
low drew in Arctic air from central Canada, lower-
ing temperatures dramatically across the northern 
plains. To the south, the Gulf of Mexico low was 
spreading rain across the southern states from 
Louisiana to Georgia. 
By the morning of November 26, the high pres-
sure area was off the New England coast, the 
Great Lakes low was centered over Detroit, and 
the southern low was just off the coast of South 
Carolina. At this point, the two low-pressure air 
masses were connected by an elongated area of 
low pressure known as a trough, which facilitated 
energy exchange between the air masses. As the 
Great Lakes low continued its eastward advance, 
2Steamship Portland  – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
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Steamship Portland – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms
the southern low began to move up the east coast, 
gradually gaining strength and speed. By three 
o’clock, the southern low had almost completely 
absorbed the Great Lakes system and was spin-
ning off Norfolk. As the weather system continued 
to grow, large amounts of moisture absorbed from 
the Gulf Stream became a massive snowfall that 
extended from Washington, DC to New York City.
As the storm moved north, a steep pressure gra-
dient developed between the low pressure storm 
system and the area of high pressure to the north-
east, as well as between the storm system and 
the Arctic high to the northwest of the storm. The 
result was unusually strong gales that battered 
central and southern New England for the entire 
day on November 27. By Monday, November 28, 
the storm had moved off to the northeast, leaving 
below-freezing temperatures, a devastated coast-
line, and shocked communities that only gradually 
learned of the Portland’s fate.
In this lesson, students will research the history of 
a more recent and familiar storm:  the Halloween 
Nor’easter of 1991, also known as “The Perfect 
Storm.” The purpose of this lesson is to acquaint 
students with some sources of meteorological infor-
mation that can provide historical as well as real-
time data on weather events.
LEARNING PROCEDURE
1. You may want to download a copy of “The 
Portland Gale” from http://www.hazegray.org for more 
information on the Portland and the monster 
storm of 1898. Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov for 
up-to-date information on the 2003 Steamship 
Portland expedition.
2. Briefly review the story of the Portland and the 
gale of 1898. Using an overhead transparency 
of the eastern United States, sketch and discuss 
the weather systems that produced this storm. 
3. Tell students that their assignment is to prepare 
a written report on the Halloween Nor’easter of 
1991. You may want to allow them to discover 
for themselves that this is the famous “Perfect 
Storm.” Their reports should include a chrono-
logical narrative of the storm’s history, including 
descriptions of the weather systems that were 
involved. Reports should also answer the follow-
ing questions:
• Was this the deadliest storm on record? If not, 
what was?
• Was this the most expensive storm on record? If 
not, what was?
• What information did oceanographic data buoys 
provide about the maximum wind speeds and 
wave heights associated with the storm?
• Why was the “unnamed hurricane” unnamed?
    The following websites have useful information 
for completing this assignment:
http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/Maps/northeast_hist.html 
– National Data Buoy Center website with real-
time as well as historical data for data buoys 
in the northeast
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/satellite/satelliteseye/cyclones 
– National Climactic Data Center with informa-
tion on extratropical cyclones
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov – National Hurricane Center, 
with historical information on hurricanes
4. Lead a discussion of students’ research results. 
Written reports should include most of the follow-
ing points:
• Like the Portland Gale, the Halloween 
Nor’easter of 1991 was the result of a collision 
between a cold front and a warm low-pressure 
area moving north along the US east coast.
• The warm low-pressure area developed 
between October 23 and 25 and on the 25th 
was located at latitude 27.1°N, longitude 
64.9°W, with wind speeds of 25 kt.
• Between October 25 and 27, winds in the 
warm low-pressure system strengthened steadi-
ly to a tropical storm strength (60 kt).
• On October 28, the warm low-pressure sys-
tem strengthened to 65 kt and was named 
Hurricane Grace; at the same time, a cold low-
4Steamship Portland  – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
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oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
Steamship Portland – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms
pressure area had moved off the east coast of 
Nova Scotia, and was strengthening; the low 
pressure of this cold system caused Hurricane 
Grace to turn sharply away from its northwest 
course and move eastward into the cold low-
pressure system.
• On October 29, the cold low-pressure system 
absorbed Hurricane Grace and continued to 
strengthen, drifting first toward the southeast, 
and then toward the southwest.
• The storm reached peak intensity on October 
30; a strong high pressure system that 
extended from the Gulf of Mexico along the 
Appalachians into Greenland contributed to a 
steep pressure gradient that generated strong 
winds where this system met the low-pressure 
area of the storm.
• NOAA buoy 44011 at 41.1°N, 66.6°W, 
reported maximum sustained winds of 49 kt 
with gusts to 65 kt; NOAA buoy 44011 at 
41.1°N, 66.6°W, reported maximum sus-
tained winds of 49 kt with gusts to 65 kt, and 
wave heights of 39 ft; NOAA buoy 44008 at 
40.5°N, 69.5°W, reported maximum sustained 
winds of 53 kt with gusts to 63 kt, and wave 
heights of 31 ft; Canadian buoy 44137 at 
42.26°N, 62.0°W, reported sustained winds of 
80 kt and open-water wave heights of 101 ft.
• The southward track of the Halloween 
Nor’easter of 1991 carried it over the Gulf 
Stream on October 31. This added heat to the 
system, and caused a re-strengthening. On 
November 1, circulation at the center of the 
Halloween Nor’easter of 1991 reached hurri-
cane intensity. The new hurricane weakened on 
November 2 and made landfall near Halifax, 
Nova Scotia later that day as a tropical storm.
• The second hurricane was unnamed because 
weather officials felt that naming the hurricane 
would cause major confusion and concern 
among the media, emergency management 
officials, and the public. The concern was 
that people might conclude that an entirely 
new storm had developed, when it fact it was 
another phase of the Halloween Nor’easter of 
1991 that had already received a great deal 
of attention because of the destruction it had 
caused.
• The Halloween Nor’easter of 1991 was not 
the deadliest storm on record. A hurricane that 
struck Martinique, St. Eustatius, and Barbados 
in 1780 is reported to have killed more than 
20,000 people.
• The Halloween Nor’easter of 1991 was not 
the most expensive storm on record. Hurricane 
Andrew in 1992 was the most expensive, caus-
ing more than $26 billion worth of damage.
THE BRIDGE CONNECTION
http://www.vims.edu/bridge/archive1200.html/
http://www.vims.edu/bridge/climate.html
THE “ME” CONNECTION
Have students write a short essay describing how 
real-time or historical meteorological information 
might be personally useful.
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER SUBJECTS
English/Language Arts
EVALUATION
Written reports prepared in Step 3 provide an 
opportunity for assessment.
EXTENSIONS
Log on to http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov to keep up to date 
with the latest Steamship Portland discoveries.
RESOURCES
Bachelder, P. D. and M. P. Smith. 2003. Four Short 
Blasts. The Gale of 1898 and the Loss of 
the Steamer Portland. The Provincial Press. 
Portland, ME.
http://www.hazegray.org/ – website with information on 
naval ships, photos, etc., and a page about 
the Portland Gale of 1898
http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/Maps/northeast_hist.html – National 
Data Buoy Center website with real-time as 
4Steamship Portland  – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
5
oceanexplorer.noaa.gov
Steamship Portland – Grades 9-12 (Earth Science)
Focus: Extreme storms
well as historical data for data buoys in the 
northeast
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/satellite/satelliteseye/cyclones – 
National Climactic Data Center website with 
information on extratropical cyclones
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov – National Hurricane Center web-
site, with historical information on hurricanes
http://pao.cnmoc.navy.mil/educate.neptune/quest/wavetide/waves.htm 
– Naval Meteorology and Oceanography 
Command website with information on 
waves and tides
http://school.discovery.com/lessonplans/programs/tidalwave/index.html 
– Discovery Channel School lesson plans on 
tsunamis (tidal waves)
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS
Content Standard A:  Science as Inquiry
• Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
• Understandings about scientific inquiry
Content Standard B:  Physical Science 
• Motions and forces
• Interactions of energy and matter
Content Standard D:  Earth and Space Science 
• Energy in the Earth system
Content Standard E:  Science and Technology 
• Abilities of technological design
Content Standard F:  Science in Personal and Social 
Perspectives 
• Natural and human-induced hazards
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Paula Keener-Chavis, National Education     
 Coordinator/Marine Biologist
NOAA Office of Exploration
2234 South Hobson Avenue
Charleston, SC 29405-2413
843.740.1338
843.740.1329 (fax)
paula.keener-chavis@noaa.gov
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This lesson plan was produced by Mel Goodwin, 
PhD, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC for the 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 
If reproducing this lesson, please cite NOAA as the 
source, and provide the following URL: 
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov


Steamship Portland: X-Storms

http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03portland/background/edu/media/portlandstorm.pdf

Steamship Portland: X-Storms

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