Männiste, Tõnis

Pedaste, Margus

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H o w  t h e  c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s  o f  a  p r o b l e m  d i f f e r  i n  t h e  m i l i t a r y  c o n t e x t  Tõnis Männiste Estonian National Defence College Margus Pedaste Tartu University Results  Problem in general. A problem has been defined as an unknown entity e.g. difference between the current state and goal state (Jonassen, 2000). The need to achieve goals has been mentioned; in this case, a problem occurs if the solver has to achieve an objective (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).   A value for the solver has been argued: Arlin (1989), for example, adds that there has to be “felt need”, e.g., motivation to solve it (Arlin, 1989).   Thus, a problem must offer some social, cultural, or intellectual value to the solver (Jonassen, 2000).  It is also argued that in the case of a real problem it is not exactly known how the goal state looks like and how to reach it (Robertson, 2001). See figure1. Conclusions In conclusion, a problem in the military context can be defined the same way as in general: an unknown entity between the current state and goal state in some practical situation, which, at the same time, is part of a “bigger picture”. In military profession the most important characteristics, which deviate from general definition of the problem, are: (1)Value of the achieved goal compared to human life: There might be a need to kill human beings and as a commander - sacrifice the lives of your subordinates (including danger to be killed yourself). This is different from all other professions and creates huge moral dilemmas. (2)Value for  the problem solver: As a result of previous point: in military profession problems might not offer any social, cultural or intellectual value, but they have to be solved anyway. (3)Acting under strict military system in complex environment: In military profession one can not just ignore problems while following orders and/or higher commanders intent (risk taking and prioritizing still accepted) in the changing environment, which can sometimes make otherwise simple problems difficult. (4)The scale of impact and level of significance: characteristics, which military commander has to consider: (1) group under influence, (2) level of threat to this (or bigger) group. Way ahead Upcoming studies aim to implement a problem based learning/teaching model for early-call conscripts training: empirically by: - Developing the models, which are in line with SAT (Systems Approach to Training) model support discovering potential real life problems in reservists future military service and incorporating them in to the early-call conscripts training. - Testing the models by discovering some potential real life problems of future reservists and asking expert opinion about those problems. - Testing the models by asking experts to evaluate discovered problems. - Selecting problems to be added in to the design process, getting expert solutions to those problems. - Based on the results of previous steps designing a problem based training program for early-call conscripts. - Testing the designed program empirically by conducting training for influenced group of early-call conscripts in accordance to designed program. - By using control (not influenced) group, comparing the effectiveness of designed problem-based program. Introduction of whole PhD project  Problem-based learning is widely used in civilian schools, but is not very often applied in military educational establishments. This also applies to early-call conscripts (future commanders in reserve) training in Estonian Defence Forces.  Reserve unit's commanders are expected to be able to act in very complex environment (battlefield) in accordance to requirements of  mission command (e.g. take initiative, decide and act independently while leading their troops and fulfilling commanders intent).  As a result of the training they can act and even lead their troops quite well under concrete orders, but fail to take the initiative and act independently in the situations, where there are no direct orders available.  Problem-based learning has proved to be successful in many occasions in civilian schools – not only improving knowledge and skills of learners, but also have positive effect on interest, motivation and attitudes of  students (Potvin & Hasni, 2014).   The same learning outcomes are important in early-call conscript's training. Thus problem-based learning might be useful tool to improve their training.  This PhD project as whole aims to compile a problem-based teaching/learning model in order to improve early-call conscripts training.   As a result of this, conscripts are expected to have suitable knowledge, skills and attitudes towards willingly taking initiative, deciding and acting while leading their troops in battlefield (which can be seen as difficult problem situation). Objectives of current study   This study (part of PhD project) starts with clarifying the characteristics of a problem in military context.  It aims to answer the following questions:  - How is problem typically defined in the scientific literature and how well those definitions suit in to the context of military?  - What are those aspects of the problem in military profession, which deviate from general definition of the problem? Literature cited Arlin, P. K., 1989. The problem of the problem. In: S. J, ed. Everyday problem solving: Theory and applications. New York: Praeger, pp. 229-237. Davis, G. A., 1973. Psychology of problem solving: Theory and practice. New York: Basic Books. Eysenck, M. W., 1984. A handbook of cognitive psychology. London: Hillsdale (N.J): Erlbaum. Jonassen, D., 2000. Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, pp. 63-85. Mayer, R. & Wittrock, M., 1996. Problem-solving transfer. In: Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Macmillan, pp. 47-62. Meacham, J. & Emont, N., 1989. The Interpersonal Basis of Everyday Problem Solving. In: J. Sinnott, ed. Everyday problem solving: Theory and applications. New York: Praeger, pp. 7-23. Nitko, A., 2001. Educational Assessment of Students. Third Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Potvin, P., & Hasni, A. (2014). Interest, motivation and attitude towards science and technology at K-12 levels: A systemic review of 12 years of education research. Studies in Science Education, 50(1), 85-129. Robertson, S., 2001. Problem Solving. Hove: Psychology Press.    Acknowledgement This PhD project is conducted under an agreement between Estonian National Defence College, Estonian Ministry of Defence and Tartu University.  Contact information Tõnis Männiste, LTC, Estonian National Defence College, Centre of Applied Research; PhD student, University of Tartu. tonis.manniste@mil.ee   Margus Pedaste, Professor, University of Tartu, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Institute of Education, supervisor of PhD project. margus.pedaste@ut.ee     Methods and procedures  In order to fulfil the objectives of this study I used two main methods: (1) An overview of the literature about the definition of the problem was given. (2) Interviews (semi-structured) were held with 6 different military officers and non commissioned officers in order to find out and specify different aspects of problem in military context. All interviews were transcribed and later categorized with the NVIVO10 programme in two stages: deductive and inductive. Figure  1. Characteristics of problem in general (Davis, 1973; Eysenc, 1984; Mayer&Wittrock, 1996; Meachan&Emont, 1998; Arlin, 1998; Jonassen, 2000; Nitko, 2001 ja Robertson 2001). Figure 2. Characteristics of problem in military context (adapted model based on previous model, author own experiences in the field of military training and results of interviews). PROBLEM  UNKNOWN  ENTITY  IT IS NOT KNOWN HOW TO REACH IT CURRENT STATE GOAL STATE PERSON,  WHO SOLVES THE PROBLEM (removes unknown entity) Problem emerges,  if solver is able to detect the unknown entity. Problem does not emerge,  if solver is not able to detect  the unknown entity. Problem continues to exist and will be solved only if the solver  decides to do so.   It happens when removing the unknown entity has some cultural, social or intellectual value for the person and it is not possible  to ignore the problem. Problem ceases to exist, it is possible to ignore the problem and the solver decides to do so. It happens when the problem has no cultural, social or intellectual value e for the person.  There is no problem, if the goal state and solving process are familiar to the solver. There is no problem, if the goal state and solving process are so obvious for the solver, that there is no need to think and use cognitive processes.   There is no problem, if solver can reach the goal state by using routine skills /methods only (e.g. trial and error). Problem in the military context. The definition of a problem suits in the military context, but some  adjustments can be made. Although the need for a practical and motivating environment (Meacham & Emont, 1989) and situation (Jonassen, 2000) were mentioned, a problem was still typically defined only as an unknown entity between the current state and goal state.   However, in the military context, in addition to specific practical situation it is always necessary to consider the problem in the context of a “bigger picture”, which gives the problem a broader military background.   Another difference is that in the military, problem solvers operate in the context of a military subordination system, where solving the problem is an order.  As a result of that, the problem still exists even if the solver cannot recognize it. In the military context, an unsolved problem (but given as order to solve) in practical situation can escalate to a bigger problem for someone else later.  Thus in military, problems cannot be ignored even though they might not offer any cultural, intellectual or social value to the solver – they must be solved anyway and cannot be overlooked by the solver as the definitions typically suggest. The acceptance of losing human life and the unclear price of the goal makes problem solving in the military profession quite different from the general definition of a problem. See figure 2. BIGGER PICTURE                         GIVES WIDER MILITARY CONTEXT, UNDER WHAT DIFFERENT SITUATIONS OCCUR SPECIFIC SITUATION                       GIVES PRACTICAL CONTEXT, WHERE PROBLEMS OCCUR PROBLEM UNKNOWN  ENTITY  IT IS NOT KNOWN HOW TO REACH IT CURRENT STATE GOAL STATE SUBUNIT  (SUBORDINATES OF THE MILITARY COMMANDER) PERSON WHO SOLVES THE PROBLEM  (MILITARY COMMANDER) COMMANDER OF HIGHER UNIT Problem has to be solved  while acting  as a member of strict military system (subordination etc). While solving problem, lethal means are used by both sides. Death of problem solver and/or his/her subordinates is accepted. Problem emerges, if solver is able to detect the unknown entity. Problem continues to exist and will be solved only if the solver  decides to do so.  It happens when removing the unknown entity has some cultural, social or intellectual value for the person and it is not possible to ignore the problem.  There is no problem, if solver can reach the goal state  by using routine skills /methods only (e.g. trial and error). There is no problem, if the goal state and solving process are familiar to the solver. There is no problem, if the goal state and solving process are so obvious for the solver, that there is no need to think and use cognitive processes.  Problem still exists, if solver is not able to detect the unknown entity. Problem continues to exist and has to be solved anyway, the solver can not ignore it. It has to be solved even if removing the unknown entity has no cultural, social or intellectual value for the person. 

How the characteristics of a problem differ in the military context

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How the characteristics of a problem differ in the military context

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