Guix, Juan Carlos

Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert

341
Durant un estudi de reconeixement portat a terme entre el 15 i 
el 22 de juliol de 2005, al llarg del curs baix i mitjà del riu Negro, 
un objecte metàl·lic de probable origen europeu va ser trobat en la 
confl uència dels rius Caurés i Negro (nord-oest de l’Amazònia) a 
prop d’un jaciment arqueològic amerindi. La peça trobada (dimen-
sions: 44 x 30 mm) presenta una fi gura en alt relleu que sembla 
representar un artesà medieval treballant.
Aquest objecte és interpretat, en el present treball, com una 
nova evidència de l’intercanvi establert entre europeus i amerindis 
en el curs mitjà del riu Negro, durant els segles XVII i XVIII. Se 
suggereix que la dispersió de plantes promoguda pels indígenes i els 
europeus podria haver estat incrementada per una xarxa extensiva 
d’intercanvi en el nord-oest de l’Amazònia, especialment en la zona 
de confl uència dels rius Negro, Caurés, Branco, Jauaperi i Unini.  
 
Paraules clau: història de l’Amazònia, amerindis, colonitzadors 
europeus, intercanvi, comerç, riu Negro, dispersió de plantes.
Juan Carlos Guix
An old-European metal object found 
at the confl uence of the Caurés 
and Negro rivers, NW Amazonia 
Introduction
There is evidence of long-term contacts, exchange 
and trade relationships between Indians and the Dutch 
in the region of the Middle Negro river system (NW 
Amazonia), during the 17th and the early 18th century 
(see RAMIREZ 2001 and references therein). Neverthe-
less, few remains of European origin have been found 
in Indian archaeological sites that corroborate former 
trade connections in the region.
Here I describe a metal object found on the right 
margin of the Caurés river, just where it joins the 
Negro river, near an Indian archaeological site. Pos-
sible contexts of this fi nding are assessed and the 
importance of the region of the Middle Negro river 
system as pre- and post-Columbian exchange network 
of plant species is discussed.
Study area
During a survey performed on fl eshy fruiting 
plants and frugivorous animals in Lower and Middle 
Negro river, from 15 to 22 July 2004, new remains 
of Indian pottery were found on the right margin of 
the Caurés river, just where it joins the Negro river 
(GUIX 2005). 
This archaeological site is about 30 km from the 
village of Carvoeiro, between Igarapé Peixe-Boi and 
Igarapé Gregório, at a place referred to by local 
Caboclos as Apoloaca (10 19’ 44.9” S,  620 13’ 27.9” 
W;  UTM DATUM European 1979: 20S,  X = 0586283, 
Y = 9853076, Altitude: 31 m; fi g. 1).
Apoloaca is a plain composed of sedimentary sandy 
soils of 27,130+200 14C yr B.P. (geologically classifi ed 
as deposits Q2) (ROSSETTI et al. 2005).
5 5
During a survey performed from 15 to 22 July 2004, along the 
Lower and Middle Negro river, a metal object of probable European 
origin was found at the confl uence of the Caurés and Negro rivers 
(NW Amazonia) near an Indian archaeological site. The 44 x 30 
mm piece shows a fi gure in high-relief that appears to represent 
a medieval artisan at work.
This metal object is considered here as new evidence of exchange 
between Europeans and Amerindians in the Middle Negro river 
during the 17th and 18th centuries. It is suggested that Indian- and 
European-mediated plant dispersal could have been enhanced by 
an extensive network of exchange in north-west Amazonia, espe-
cially at the confl uences of the Negro, Caurés, Branco, Jauaperi 
and Unini rivers. 
 
Key words: Amazonian history, Amerindians, European colonis-
ers, exchange, trade, Rio Negro, plant dispersal.
Pàgs. 341-346
342
The Middle and Lower Negro river basin form a 
low-density drainage system dominated by oligotrophic 
blackwater rivers (nutrient-poor), and composed of 
hundreds of islands and river margins that remain 
fl ooded for almost six months every year. Neverthe-
less, some eutrophic whitewater rivers (nutrient-rich), 
such as the Branco river, were also found.
The climate is equatorial humid, with an average 
annual temperature above 26º C. Annual rainfall ex-
ceeds 2,000 mm and precipitations are more abundant 
between December and May.
The main vegetation formations are: a- the igapó 
forests (tall fl oodable forests found on river margins 
and some islands), b- the terra fi rme forests (tall 
rainforests not subjected to periodic fl ooding), c- the 
campinarana forest (Amazonian “caatinga” forest), and 
d- the campina (Amazonian “caatinga” shrubland), 
usually found on sandy soils; see HUECK 1972, VICE-
NTINI 2004).
Description of the metal piece
The 44 x 30 mm object is made of bronze, with 
evident remains of copper oxide on the surface. It 
is drop-shaped and concave. One side is smooth 
and polished. The borders of the piece as symmetric 
and there is a fi gure inside the concavity, which is 
partially worn.
The fi gure is in high-relief and depicts an artisan 
at work (possibly a metalsmith or a potter). Some 
characteristics of the fi gure, such as the hat, a shoe 
and the shoulder, suggest that it has a medieval 
European origin or that it was inspired in medieval 
motifs (fi g. 2).
A Caboclo settlement, now composed of three fami-
lies, was established at this site in the 1930’s. This 
metal piece was fi rst found by Antonio de Oliveira 
Bitencur near Indian pottery remains when the fi rst 
Caboclos settled in Apoloaca (Antonio de Oliveira 
Bitencur, pers. comm.). Two polished stones (semi-
precious) were also found in Apoloaca. 
Pottery fragments (see below), the metal object 
and the polished stones found in Apoloaca were pho-
tographed and drawn in situ. All the archaeological 
material was left where it was found.
Indian pottery at Apoloaca and in 
neighbouring areas
Several fragments of Indian pottery were found 
on the surface of a sandy soil that was eroded by 
the water of the Caurés, in Apoloaca (fi g. 1). Some 
Figure 1. Map of the confl uence of the Caurés river with the Negro river, in the Middle Negro river system, Northwest 
Amazonia. The site where the metal object was found is located in Apoloaca (A), near the Igarapé Peixe-Boi.
343
ceramic fragments showed geometric fi gures on the 
surface, such as concentric rectangles, made in bas-
relief (fi g. 3). Three-layered fragments of ceramics 
suggest the effect of a combination of a reducing 
atmosphere (oxygen-poor air) followed by an oxidiz-
ing fl ame (oxygen-rich air), in the clay fi ring process 
(GUIX, 2005).
Indian pottery found in Apoloaca (2004 survey), in-
dicates the existence of old settlements of Amerindians, 
some of them probably pre-Columbian. Composition, 
colour, texture and geometric patterns of some of the 
ceramics fragments found suggest they may be as 
old as 2500-2000 B.P. This type of pottery would be 
attributable to ethnics groups closely related to the 
Arawak culture, such as the Baniwa of the Upper 
Negro river (Eduardo Góes Neves, pers. comm; see 
also NEVES 2001, RAMIREZ 2001, ZUCCHI 2002). Also, 
pottery fragments were attributed to the pre-Columbian 
Polychrome tradition (Guarita subtradition) in the 
area (cf. M.F. Simões; A.L. Machado & A.L. Maroja 
in IPHAN-1997, AM-BL-8: Puluaca). 
In addition, during the 2004 survey, pottery remains 
(probably post-Columbian) were found in Apoloaca, 
suggesting long-term or successive episodes of Indian 
occupancy of this area.
In the Parque Nacional do Jaú (located 130 km 
downstream from Apoloaca, on the right margin of 
the Negro river), archaeological surveys found pottery 
fragments attributable to the Polychrome tradition 
(Guarita) from the Middle and Low Negro River, that 
could be as old as 1070-390 B.P. (M. HECKENBERGER 
in FVA, 1998).
Other pottery fi ndings from upper tributaries of the 
Negro River, which could be as old as 3500 B.P., were 
recently attributed to Arawak groups (ZUCCHI 2002).
Arawak communities of the Negro river basin 
reached a higher stage of technical development when 
compared with other neighbouring cultures. This con-
clusion is supported by elaborated pottery, weaving 
work, community buildings and agriculture (RIBEIRO 
1996; HECKENBERGER 2002). Horticultural and agricul-
tural practices developed by Arawak groups probably 
induced changes in the ecological succession of plant 
communities of the forest, when they abandoned their 
settlements following the European colonisation of the 
17th century. Ecological and archaeological evidence 
suggests that pre- and post-Columbian settlers at the 
confl uence of the Caurés and Negro rivers managed at 
least some of the forests and infl uenced their fl oristic 
composition (GUIX 2005).  
Figure 2. Metal object found in Apoloaca, located on the 
right margin of the Caurés river, between Igarapé Peixe-Boi 
and Igarapé Gregório. Measurements: 44 x 30 mm. 
Figure 3. Some fragments of Indian pottery found on the 
surface of a sandy soil of Apoloaca.
344
A possible context for the metal 
object found at the Apoloaca site
The site is located in a zone of high confl uence 
of large rivers, such as the Negro, Caurés, Branco, 
Jauaperi and Unini rivers. Some of these rivers 
communicate extensive regions along a latitudinal 
axis (e.g. the Branco and the Jauaperi rivers from 
the Northern Amazonia, and the Unini from the 
South-west), while others communicate regions on 
a longitudinal axis (e.g. the Negro river from the 
north-west to the south-east and the Urariquera river 
from the west to the east). Furthermore, the Upper 
River Basins of the Branco and the Negro (in the 
large Amazon basin) are important fl uvial corridors 
that communicate with areas of the Upper Orinoco 
basin. Similarly, the Jauaperi river forms a corridor 
that communicate the Negro river basin with the 
Esequibo river basin of the Guyana. 
This hydrographical context would have been com-
patible with an extensive network of Indian exchange 
in the region located at the confl uences of the Negro, 
Caurés, Branco, Jauaperi and Unini rivers, during 
pre-Columbian times (GUIX 2005), which was probably 
used by the fi rst Europeans settlers that colonised 
the region, during the 17th and 18th centuries, as an 
exchange connection.
The fi rst Europeans explorers arrived in Northwest 
Amazonia between the 16th and 17th centuries. By 
this time Arawak-speaking Indians had established 
settlements along the Upper and Middle Negro river 
(NEVES 2001, RAMIREZ 2001, HECKENBERGER 2002, 
HORNBORG 2004).
Dutch colonisers established in the region of the 
present Guyana from 1581 to 1770. In 1616 they 
began the construction of sugar cane mills (RAMIREZ 
2001) and by the 1640s the Dutch West India Com-
pany had introduced the fi rst slaves from Africa. They 
were probably fi rst Europeans to maintain long-term 
contacts and exchange with Arawak communities from 
the Middle Negro river, through the Branco river.
In 1669 the Portuguese constructed a military 
fortifi cation (Forte São José da Barra do Rio Negro, 
which later became the village of Manaus) at the 
mouth of the Negro river, and in the late 17th century 
they began long-term contacts with Indian communi-
ties of the Middle Negro river (RAMIREZ 2001). In the 
fi rst half of the 18th century Dutch and Portuguese 
disputed the European hegemony of the Middle Negro 
river, both attempting to forge alliances with different 
Arawak Indian communities.
In 1728 a Carmelite mission (Nossa Senhora da 
Conceição de Mariuá) was founded in the Indian 
settlement of Mariuá, located in the Middle Negro 
river, and in 1758 the Portuguese raised the category 
to vila (changing its name to Barcelos) and consoli-
dating the control of the region. Between 1730 and 
1758 the Portuguese also extended their infl uence 
and control of several territories located in the Up-
per Negro river, which were claimed by the Spanish 
Crown (cf. PELAYO-LÓPEZ 1990). Meanwhile, the British 
assumed control of the Guyana between the late 18th 
century and the early 19th century.
During the period of Dutch infl uence in the Branco 
river and the Middle Negro river, Arawak communities, 
such as the Manao, and the Dutch probably estab-
lished exchange activities and trade of several products 
including metal artefacts (see SIMON 1983).
One drawing of Wapixana Indians made in 1786 by 
Joaquim José Codina, one of the artists of the expe-
dition headed by the naturalist Alexandre Rodrigues 
Ferreira along the Negro and Branco rivers, bears the 
following foot inscription: “Representação dos Gentios 
Uapixanas, q. habitão as Serras da parte superior do 
Rio Branco, os quaes andão sempre pintados de Urucú, 
e uzão de Armas de fogo, e de Terçados, asim como 
as mulheres, de Tangas, e mais ornamentos de mis-
sanga q. comprão aos Holandezes de Suriname“ (i.e. 
“Description of Uapixanas Indians, which inhabit the 
mountain chains of the Upper Branco river, who are 
always painted with urucú –Bixa orellana-, and use 
fi rearms and machetes, while the women use tangas 
and other missanga ornaments that they buy from the 
Dutchmen of Surinam”) (FERREIRA 2002: fólio 16r).
The metal object found in Apoloaca could be in-
serted in the context of successive attempts of control 
and colonisation of the region, by different European 
nations, during the 17th and 18th centuries. This piece 
seems to be a personal object of medieval origin 
and it could be an insignia of an artisan guild. It 
might have been used during an exchange between 
Europeans (possibly Dutch) and Indians or it might 
have been apprehended during a fi ght.
   
Importance of the region for plant 
dispersal  
Given the importance of the region of hydrographical 
confl uence of the Middle Negro river to the history of 
Amerindians and Europeans in Amazonia, the region 
probably played a crucial role in plant dispersal in 
the Amazon basin.
By means of this interconnected hydrological sys-
tem, several plant species that had more restricted 
distributions, were transported by humans to regions 
where they probably had not existed before. Indeed, 
pre-Columbian Arawak communities could have ex-
panded the cultivation of several species and varieties 
of manioc (Manihot spp.; Euphorbiaceae) and cacao 
(Theobroma spp.; Sterculiaceae) in Western Amazonia 
(see RAMIREZ 2001, GUIX 2005).
Seeds of plants used by the Indians, such as urucú 
(Bixa orellana), and several species of palm trees (Are-
caceae) and large-fruited Sapotaceae, were probably 
dispersed by them in pre-Columbian times.
Also, alien plant species brought from overseas in 
post-Columbian times, such as species and varieties of 
bananas (Musa spp.; Musaceae) and mangos (Mangifera 
indica; Anacardiaceae) from Asia, and coffee (Coffea 
spp.; Rubiaceae) from Africa, were introduced by the 
Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish and widely dispersed 
into the North-west Amazonia by Europeans settlers, 
Indians and Caboclos.    
Juan Carlos Guix
Departament de Biologia Animal (Vertebrats) 
Facultat de Biologia. Universitat de Barcelona 
Av. Diagonal 645, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain 
E-mail: jcguix@pangea.org
345
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Antonio de Oliveira Bitencur, who 
found the metal object and showed it to me, and to 
Eduardo Mateos for photographing this piece. My sin-
cere thanks to Manel Guiu and the crew of the Novo 
Nazaré for the logistic support provided during the 
trip to the Middle Negro river. Eduardo Góes Neves 
gave helpful advice about Indian pottery found in 
Apoloaca. Maria Soler Sala, Isabel M. S. Cruz Alves 
and Sofi a Cruz Alves Guix provided suggestions and 
bibliographic material. Robin Rycroft improved the 
English text and made valuable comments on the 
manuscript. Finally, I also thank the colleagues who 
integrated the Amazonian group during this trip: 
Eduardo Mateos, Isabel M. S. Cruz Alves, Josep Maria 
Mascó, Josep Maria Puigbó, Maria del Carmen Funes, 
Milagros González and Sofi a Cruz Alves Guix.


An old-European metal object found at the confluence of the Caurés and Negro rivers, NW Amazonia

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