A milliwatt power source (MPS) has been developed to satisfy the requirements of several potential solar system exploration missions.  The MPS is a small power source consisting of three major components: a space qualified heat source (RHU), a thermopile (thermoelectric converter or TEC) and a container to direct the RHU heat to the TEC.  Thermopiles from Hi-Z Technology, Inc. of San Diego and the Institute of Thermoelectricity of Chernivtsi Ukraine suitable for the MPS were tested and shown to perform as expected, producing 40 mW of power with a temperature difference of about 170°C. Such thermopiles were successfully life tested for up to a year.  A MPS container designed and built by Swales Aerospace was tested with both a TEC simulator and actual TEC.  The Swales unit, tested under dynamic vacuum, provided less temperature difference than anticipated, such that the TEC produced 20 mW of power with heat input equivalent to a RHU

Allen, D.

Anatychuk, L.

Bass, J. C.

Borshchevsky, A.

Caillat, T.

Elsner, N.

Fleurial, J.-P.

Ghamaty, S.

McBirney, T.

Mondt, J.

Nesmith, B.

Snyder, G. Jeffrey

Zoltan, A.

English

Caltech Authors - Main

Testing of Milliwatt Power Source Components
G. J. Snyder1, A. Borshchevsky1, A. Zoltan1, T. Caillat1, J.-P. Fleurial1, B. Nesmith1, J. Mondt1, T. McBirney2, D. Allen, J.
C. Bass, S. Ghamaty, N. Elsner3, L. Anatychuk4
1Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91109
2Swales Aerospace, 5050 Powder Mill Road, Beltsville, MD 20705
 3Hi-Z Technology, 7606 Miramar Road, San Diego, CA 92126
4Institute of Thermoelectricity, Chernivtsi, Ukraine
(818)354-0988;jsnyder@jpl.nasa.gov
Abstract
A milliwatt power source (MPS) has been developed to
satisfy the requirements of several potential solar system
exploration missions.  The MPS is a small power source
consisting of three major components: a space qualified heat
source (RHU), a thermopile (thermoelectric converter or
TEC) and a container to direct the RHU heat to the TEC.
Thermopiles from Hi-Z Technology, Inc. of San Diego and
the Institute of Thermoelectricity of Chernivtsi Ukraine
suitable for the MPS were tested and shown to perform as
expected, producing 40 mW of power with a temperature
difference of about 170°C. Such thermopiles were
successfully life tested for up to a year.  A MPS container
designed and built by Swales Aerospace was tested with both
a TEC simulator and actual TEC.  The Swales unit, tested
under dynamic vacuum, provided less temperature difference
than anticipated, such that the TEC produced 20 mW of
power with heat input equivalent to a RHU.
Introduction
Several potential solar system exploration missions are
being developed that require a power source smaller than the
current redioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) or
planned advanced radioisotope power source (ARPS).
Several systems have been proposed utilizing the standard
radio isotope heater unit (RHU) as a heat source.  The RHU
was developed by DOE for the Galileo and Ulysses missions
to maintain specific spacecraft components within normal
operating temperatures. The RHU provides 1 W of heat and
can be expected to produce about 40 mW of electrical power
using a thermoelectric generator.  Using a MPS instead of
only a RHU will provide electrical power in addition to 96%
of the RHU heat.  These electrical power systems, generally
called milliwatt power sources (MPS) have also been referred
to as the "powerstick" concept (Chmielewski, 1994).  Various
MPS systems have been developed at tested in Russia for
terrestrial and space applications (Pustovalov, 1999).
The MPS is designed to be used in a small planetary rover,
small communication transmitter, microspacecraft or an
autonomous science package such as a remote weather
station, that either uses continuous power at a level of a
fraction of a watt or can operate intermittently by using
energy from a battery that is continuously charged by a MPS.
For example, the proposed Mars Network missions (e.g.
PASCAL) could take advantage of MPS’s for their mini-
meteorological stations.  The MPS is designed to produce
enough continuous power to operate a sequencer while trickle
charging the batteries.  The battery power could then be used
every couple of weeks to operate the instruments and transmit
the data.  Without such a power source, it will be difficult to
power such missions for the nearly 20 year duration,
particularly in the polar regions.
Milliwatt Power Source Description
The MPS contains three essential components: the RHU
heat source, the thermoelectric converter (TEC), and
container.  The MPS will probably also require a rechargeable
battery.  The RHU heat source supplies heat to the
thermoelectric converter or thermopile, which produces
electricity used to charge the lithium ion battery.  The
container is essential in that it directs the heat from the RHU
into the TEC.
The waste heat from the RHU is used to keep the battery
warm, as well as other spacecraft components. The energy
stored in the battery can be used periodically to operate a
science instrument.  A small amount of power is also
available continuously from the thermopile.
Radioisotope Heater Unit (RHU)
The RHU, or specifically the light weight RHU, is a
standard heat source produced by DoE and designed to
provide 1.1 W of thermal power (Tate, 1982) at the start of
mission.  The unit is a cylinder 32 mm high, 26 mm in
diameter and weighs about 40 g. In the unit, the pelletized Pu-
238 fuel is surrounded by platinum-alloy capsule, pyrolytic
graphite thermal insulation and high technology graphite
ablation shell.  Over a hundred of these units are used in space
such as on the Galileo and Cassini spacecrafts.  The Pu-238
fuel has a half life of 88 years, providing power for decades as
evidenced by the continuing operation of the Voyager
spacecrafts.  The remaining heat from the RHU in the MPS is
used to keep the battery warm. The electrical imitators of
RHU were designed and built at JPL and are used in place if
actual RHU’s for testing.
Thermoelectric Converter (TEC) or Thermopile
The thermoelectric converter, also called thermoelectric
module or thermopile has been developed by Hi-Z
Technology, Inc.  (Elsner, 1999). It uses Bi2Te3-based
materials, both n- and p-type. The materials are vacuum hot-
pressed to provide the strength and machining characteristics
required to fabricate the long thin legs for the module. The
module consists of 18x18 array of legs.  Each leg is 0.381 mm
on a side and 22.86 mm long (Fig. 1). Such a solid array
should have superior strength and excellent shock and
vibration characteristics.  A 0.025 mm thick layer of
insulating film is used within the interior of the module to
electrically separate the legs.  The module is expected to have
a peak power output of at least 40 mW in a generator using
the 1 W RHU as a heat source. The matched load voltage will
be 5 volts. The weight of the module is about 7 g.  The
Institute of Thermoelectricity in Chernivtsi, Ukraine is also
capable of making such thermopiles using a similar
fabrication process.  Their designation of this thermopile
design is Altec 1050.
     
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Thermoelectric Module Developed by Hi-Z,
(a).  Side View Showing Apparent Crack and Attached
Thermocouple.  (b).  Cold End Showing Interconnects.
One Hi-Z thermopile was delivered to JPL for testing and
is shown in Figure 1.  The crack visible in figure 1 makes that
particular thermoelement loose without causing an open
circuit during testing as described below.  The individual
thermoelectric elements and gold interconnects are clearly
visible.
Figure 2. Thermoelectric Module Developed by Institute of
Thermoelectricity in Chernivtsi, Ukraine.   Figure also shows 0.3mm
thick heater/thermometer and TEC simulator above thermopile, and
part of Al foil shielding.
Five thermopiles were purchased from the Institute of
Thermoelectricity in Chernivtsi, Ukraine (designated Ukraine
1 to 5).  These thermopiles are presumably fabricated in a
very similar manner, but also contain a black substrate
insulator on the hot and cold surfaces as well as a protective
coating on the sides (Figure 2).
MPS Container
Several versions of the mechanical and thermal design of
the MPS have been considered (Borshchevsky, 1997). The Hi-
Z design uses aluminized Kapton multi-foil insulation which
can operate in vacuum if moisture is properly removed or with
a xenon cover gas. The electrical output in vacuum is 40mW
while with Xenon it is less than half as much.  Spring loaded
titanium tie wires are used to hold RHU capsule holder firmly
against the TEC both for good thermal contact and to help
withstand high shock and vibration loads.  A temperature
difference of 225 °C was obtained with 1.1W heat source
resulting in 40mW electrical output.  The Hi-Z container has
been impact tested to 1000 g’s (Allen, 2001).
Figure 3. Diagram of MPS Container Designed and Built by Swales
Aerospace.
The Swales Aerospace design is also a vacuum design but
requires the RHU to be hermetically sealed, i.e. not to release
He gas.  The container shown in Figure 3 is 6.4 cm in
diameter, 8.1 cm long weighing 300g. It is designed to direct
70% of the RHU heat to the TEC with a 150 to 170 °C
temperature difference across the TEC.  The RHU casing is
held against the TEC with 6 wires providing 200 psi pressure
at the TEC.  A single layer of metallized kapton is used as the
radiation shield.  The Swales prototype had not yet been fitted
with hermetic seals for testing in static vacuum.  A very
similar container has also been built and tested, with similar
results (Pustovalov et al., 1999).
Results
The performance curves for various currents and
temperatures were measured on the thermopiles using the
measurement fixture pictured in Figure 2.  A thin film heater
and thermometer embedded in a 0.3 mm thick copper plate
was attached to the hot side of the thermopile.  On the other
side of the copper plate was attached another thermopile for
testing or a piece of glass ceramic with the same thermal
conductance as a thermopile.  This fixture was then
sandwiched between two copper cold plates.  Small
thermocouples could also be attached to the outside surface of
the thermopiles.  Al foil was placed around the samples for
radiation shielding.  A current source was used as the load.
The temperatures, voltages and currents were adjusted and
monitored automatically by computer.
The thermopiles showed very linear I-V characteristics
and therefore parabolic power curves as shown in Figure 4.
Since the Peltier cooling depends on the current supplied by
the thermopile, the hot side temperature will change if the
heater power is kept constant; or the heater power must be
changed to keep the hot side temperature constant (Figure 4).
The constant heat measurement is more like the real
application with an RHU, however the constant temperature
measurement is probably more applicable for the evaluation
of device performance and comparison with predicted results.
This is due to heat losses which will depend on container or
measurement fixture.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Constant Temperature I-V curve
Voltage
Power (mW)
V
ol
ta
g
e
P
ow
er (m
W
)
Current (mA)
Ukraine 1
205° C
1.17 W heat
0.86 W heat
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Constant Heat I-V curve
Voltage
Power (mW)
V
ol
ta
g
e
P
ow
er (m
W
)
Current (mA)
Ukraine 1
1.0 W
197° C
222° C
Figure 4. Examples of I-V Curves Measured on Thermopiles.
Top:  Measurement Using Constant Heater Temperature.  Bottom:
Measurement Using Constant Heater Power.
Thermoelectric Converter Performance
Such constant temperature I-V curves were measured for
various hot side temperatures with all thermopiles.  The hot
side temperature is measured within the 0.3 mm thick heating
plate.  Thermocouples on the surface of the thermopiles were
used to estimate the thermal contact resistances.  For
operation at 205°C heater temperature, the hot side of the
thermopile elements was estimated to be 184°C and cold side
of 31°C.  The Hi-Z thermopile has less thermal contact
resistance, probably due to the lack of a substrate, providing a
larger temperature difference: 190°C hot side and 28°C cold
side.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
100 150 200 250
Hi-Z
Ukraine 1
Ukraine 2
Ukraine 3
O
u
tp
u
t 
P
ow
er
 (
m
W
)
Temperature (C)
Swales Container
Design Criterion
Hi-Z Container
Design Criterion
Ukraine 4
Ukraine 5
Swales Container
Result with
Ukraine 1
(°C)
Figure 5.  Maximum Power of Various Thermopiles as Heater Plate
Temperature Varies.
As the heater temperature increases, the maximum output
power increases as shown in Figure 5.  These results can be
directly used to estimate power output in a MPS with similar
cold side temperature.  The Swales 40 mW MPS container
was designed to provide 150 °C to 170 °C temperature
difference to the thermoelectric converter, which means about
200°C hot side.  The best Ukraine thermopiles and Hi-Z
thermopiles meet this design criterion, providing about 40
mW power from a hot side temperature of about 200°C.  The
Hi-Z MPS container design is intended to provide a larger
temperature difference, and hot side of nearly 250°C, such
that both the Ukraine and Hi-Z thermopiles would easily
exceed 40mW at that temperature.  Two of the Ukraine
thermopiles, designated Ukraine 4 and 5, provided sporadic,
low power with low voltage and less than half the internal
resistance of the working thermopiles, indicative of electrical
shorts that must have occurred during transport or test
assembly.  Thermopile Ukraine 3 shows some sporadic results
in Figure 5 and critically failed (high internal resistance) after
4 days of operation.
Life Testing
Some thermopiles were then continuously tested, using a
constant heater power (Figure 6).  The Hi-Z thermopile
performed well, showing no significant loss of power during 1
year of operation.  The Ukraine 2 thermopile also showed no
degradation after 3 months while Ukraine 3 failed after 4 days
operation.
30
32
34
36
38
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
P
ow
er
 (
m
W
)
Time (months)
continuous resistive load 
at maximum power
Maximum Power 
From I-V Curve
Constant 0.8 W Heat
~ 205° C
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 20 40 60 80 100
P
ow
er
 (
m
W
)
Time (days)
stop/restart
life testing
Ukraine 2
Ukraine 3
Failure after
4 days
Figure 6.  Long Term Testing  of Thermopiles, With Constant Heat
Input.  Top:  Hi-Z Thermopile Tested for Nearly 1 Year.  Bottom:
Ukraine Thermopiles.
Swales MPS Container Performance
Before delivery to JPL, the unit was tested at Swales:
from 1.1 W heat input to a RHU simulator, the measured
temperature difference was 138.6°C with a hot side of 163°C.
The container was found not to keep a vacuum and needed to
be tested using a dynamic vacuum.  Upon disassembly,
significant outgassing of organics was noticed.  This
outgassing could have arisen from the epoxy used to fabricate
a TEC simulator, the polyurethane resin intended fo use in the
prototype only, kapton tape or even the metalized kapton
shielding.  Without a dynamic vacuum, the outgassing
increases the heat conduction losses therefore decreasing the
temperature difference across the TEC and reducing power
output.  These results were confirmed at JPL before installing
the Ukraine 1 thermopile.
The Ukraine 1 thermopile was installed into the Swales
container and the entire system tested in dynamic vacuum
with 1.1 W heat input.  Under open circuit conditions (no
power drain) the hot side temperature reached 173°C with
cold side of 33°C, while under maximum power (20.5 mW)
the hot side temperature stabilized at 161°C.  These results are
consistent with the previous results on the individual
components: The TEC is performing within about 10% of that
expected with the temperature difference provided but the
Swales container is producing significantly less temperature
drop than anticipated.  Such a 20% decrease in temperature
drop decreases not only the TEC efficiency but also the heat
entering the TEC, giving a net 40% decreases in expected
power output.  The results reported here are in agreement with
those on a similar design MPS (Pustovalov et al., 1999).
Suggestions by Swales to improve the thermal performance
include reduction of the titanium support wire diameter,
elimination of thermal losses due to internal thermocouple and
heater wires and improved insulation design.
Conclusions
Various components for a 40 mW Milliwatt Power Source
powered by a single RHU simulator were tested.
Thermoelectric converter thermopiles manufactured by Hi-Z
Inc. in San Diego, California and the Institute of
Thermoelectricity in the Ukraine performed as expected,
producing 40 mW from a 140°C temperature difference.
Some thermopiles were tested for up to 1 year with no
observable degradation.  The Milliwatt Power Source
container designed and built by Swales aerospace provided
less thermal insulation than anticipated, and was not yet able
to hold a vacuum necessary for sealed operation.  The
combined container and thermopile unit was tested, producing
20 mW power.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper was carried out by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
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Testing of Milliwatt Power Source Components

Experimental Confirmation of Milliwatt Power Source Concept”

Fabrication of Milliwatt Modules”

Milliwatt Radioisotope Power Supply for the PASCAL Mars Surface Stations,”

Mini-RTGs on Plutonium-238: Development and Application”

Powerstick Development,&quot;

The Light Weight Radioisotope Heater Unit (LWRHU): A Technical Description of the Reference Design,&quot; Los Alamos Document No.

The Powerstick,&quot;

http://authors.library.caltech.edu/9088/1/MilliwattPSICT02.pdf

Testing of Milliwatt Power Source Components

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