Feminisation is a term used in the social sciences to describe a profound shift in the gender balance from male to female within a population. The veterinary profession has experienced such a shift over the past 30 years. Research has shown that feminisation can have paradoxical effects on gender equality and status for a profession. However, Clare Allen suggests that, by understanding the processes behind feminisation, and responding appropriately, there is reason to be optimistic for the future of the veterinary profession.This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from BMJ Group via http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.i214

Allen, L Clare V

Veterinary Record

L. Clare V. Allen

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Feminisation: threat or opportunity?

Feminisation is a term used in the social sciences to describe a profound shift in the gender balance from male to female within a population. The veterinary profession has experienced such a shift over the past 30 years. Research has shown that feminisation can have paradoxical effects on gender equality and status for a profession. However, Clare Allen suggests that, by understanding the processes behind feminisation, and responding appropriately, there is reason to be optimistic for the future of the veterinary profession

Apollo (Cambridge)

ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		1	Feminisation	of	the	Veterinary	Profession:	Opportunity	or	Threat?	1	In	the	last	30	years,	the	veterinary	profession	has	seen	a	dramatic	2	gender	shift,	and,	more	than	any	other	profession	in	the	Western	world,	3	has	changed	from	being	a	male-dominated	profession	in	the	1970’s,	to	a	4	female-dominated	one	currently,	at	least	in	terms	of	numbers	(Chieffo	and	5	others	2008;	Greenhill	2014;	RCVS	2014).	This	process	is	known	as	6	feminisation	in	the	social	sciences.	However,	we	know	from	research	7	across	other	professions,	that	feminisation	can	have	paradoxical	effects	on	8	gender	equity,	and	status	for	a	profession.	Although	this	is	clearly	a	threat	9	to	veterinary	medicine,	Clare	Allen	believes	that	there	is	reason	for	10	optimism.	Understanding	these	processes	helps	us	to	define	the	threats	to	11	the	future	of	the	profession	better	and	we	have	an	opportunity	to	12	intercede,	and	create	better	opportunities	for	veterinary	graduates.	This,	13	in	turn,	has	the	potential	to	strengthen	and	raise	the	profile	of	the	14	profession	by	reinventing	our	role	in	society.	15	In	the	history	of	veterinary	medicine,	key	changes	in	social	context	have	16	presented	challenges	to	its	integrity	and	survival.	The	profession	and	its	17	members	have	had	to	adapt	and	change	in	response	to	these	challenges	in	order	18	to	survive	and	thrive	as	a	profession.	For	example,	after	a	boom	of	new	19	veterinary	schools	in	the	US	at	the	turn	of	the	19th	Century,	to	meet	the	needs	of	20	society	for	professionals	who	could	care	for	the	horses	that	provided	transport	21	and	drove	the	economy,	the	profession	was	faced	with	extinction	because	of	the	22	production	of	affordable	motor	vehicles.	As	a	result,	many	of	those	colleges	were	23	closed	almost	as	soon	as	they	were	opened	(Dunlop	and	Williams	1996).	The	24	profession,	however,	built	on	their	foundation	of	equine	care,	adapted	and	found	25	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		2	other	ways	of	providing	services	to	society	through	the	care	of	agricultural	26	animals,	and,	later,	companion	animals	such	as	cats	and	dogs.	Similarly	big	27	changes	are	challenging	the	way	that	veterinary	medicine	is	practiced	today,	and	28	there	is	increasing	anxiety	about	how	the	profession	will	weather	those	threats.	29	These	shifts	signal	the	need	to	re-evaluate	the	structure	of	the	profession,	and	30	how	we	should	adapt	and	respond.	31	One	of	those	challenges	is	a	shift	in	the	demographics	of	the	veterinary	32	population	towards	women	–	a	process	known	as	feminisation	in	the	social	33	sciences	(Bolton	and	Muzio	2008).	Research	from	other	professions	indicates	34	that	feminisation	is	more	than	just	a	shift	in	numbers	and	has	greater	35	consequences	to	the	status	and	structure	of	a	profession,	both	internally	and	36	externally,	that	can	continue	to	support	patriarchal	structures	and	gender	37	inequity	at	the	cost	of	the	profession	(Bolton	and	Muzio	2008;	Kuhlmann	and	38	Bourgeault	2008).		39	In	the	1970’s,	only	16%	of	veterinary	graduates	in	the	UK,	and	11%	in	the	40	US,	were	women.	Now	almost	80%	of	graduates	are	women,	with	women	41	recently	becoming	the	majority	in	the	profession	overall	(RCVS	2014,	2015;	42	Shepherd	and	Pikel	2013).	This	gender	shift	is	significantly	higher	than	in	any	43	other	profession.	Many	professions	such	as	medicine,	and	the	other	health	44	sciences,	have	experienced	feminisation	over	the	same	time	period,	but	they	45	typically	started	with	higher	numbers	of	women	and	have	not	shown	any	signs	of	46	reaching	the	same	proportions	now	seen	in	veterinary	medicine.	47	The	tipping	point	for	veterinary	medicine	was	in	the	late	1980’s:	when	I	48	entered	Cambridge	Vet	School	in	1989,	the	numbers	of	graduates	were	roughly	49	equal.	In	my	class,	we	had	a	few	more	women,	but	had	no	reason	to	think	that	the	50	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		3	distribution	was	anything	more	than	a	normal	statistical	variation	in	the	50:50	51	ratio	that	we	expected	to	continue.	Instead,	the	numbers	of	women	continued	to	52	rise	steadily,	until	plateauing	at	about	77%	(see	figure	1).	The	number	of	women	53	currently	being	accepted	into	and	graduating	from	UK	and	American	veterinary	54	schools	represents	the	gender	distribution	of	applicants,	and,	in	fact,	the	55	proportion	of	applicants	who	are	women	has	been	high	for	a	lot	longer	(Aitken	56	1994;	RCVS	2014).	However,	in	the	past,	there	were	barriers	to	women	being	57	accepted	into	the	professions,	and	it	was	only	due	to	broader	social	and	political	58	changes	that	occurred	in	both	countries	in	the	1970’s	that	the	numbers	of	59	professional	women	have	increased.	The	question	remains,	however,	why	did	60	women	flock	to	veterinary	medicine	so	much	more	than	other	occupations,	and	61	what	effects	does	this	have	on	our	profession?	62	The	Professional	Project	63		 The	concept	of	a	profession	is	not	fixed,	but	evolves	as	the	result	of	an	64	interaction	between	its	members	and	their	external	environment.	When	social	65	scientists	study	what	it	means	for	an	occupation	to	become	and	maintain	its	66	status	as	a	profession,	they	observe	a	“systematic	attempt	by	occupations	to	67	translate	a	scarce	set	of	cultural	and	technical	resources	into	a	secure	and	68	institutionalised	system	of	occupational	and	financial	rewards	so	as	to	pave	the	69	way	for	collective	mobility	and	social	advancement.”	(Bolton	and	Muzio	2008).	70	As	a	result,	maintaining	the	identity	of	a	profession	is	an	ongoing	process,	71	especially	when	there	are	changes	in	the	internal	or	external	structure	of	the	72	profession.	73		 Feminisation	has	been	shown	to	have	both	internal	and	external	effects	74	on	a	profession.	Externally,	the	more	feminised	a	profession	becomes,	the	75	Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Formatted: Font:(Default) +Theme Body(Cambria), 12 pt, English (UK)Deleted: This	increase	in	the	number	of	women	being	76	accepted	to	and	graduating	from	British	and	American	77	veterinary	schools	represents	the	gender	distribution	of	78	applicants.	In	fact,	if	you	look	at	the	proportion	of	79	veterinary	applicants	who	are	women,	it	has	been	high	80	for	a	lot	longer	(Aitken	1994;	RCVS	2014),	and	it	was	only	81	due	to	broader	social	and	political	changes	that	occurred	82	in	both	countries	in	the	1970’s	that	allowed	women	to	83	have	greater	access	to	the	professions.	84	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		4	greater	the	loss	in	status	of	that	profession	in	the	eyes	of	society,	which	has	a	85	negative	impact	on	compensation	for	its	members.	A	feminised	profession	is	less	86	valued	by	society.	Internally,	there	are	paradoxical	effects	that	actually	increase	87	gender	inequity.	This	is	often	seen	in	an	increased	gender	wage	gap,	and	vertical	88	stratification	of	the	genders	such	that	men	are	more	likely	to	occupy	the	senior	89	positions,	with	women	filling	the	lower	status,	less	valued	roles	(Bolton	and	90	Muzio	2008).	Think	of	teaching,	which	became	feminised	early	in	the	20th	91	Century,	and	where,	despite	the	high	numbers	of	women,	head	teachers	and	92	educational	administrators	are	still	more	likely	to	be	men,	and	the	number	of	93	male	teachers	increases	as	you	move	up	the	ranks	from	primary	school	to	higher	94	levels	of	education.	Another	effect	of	feminisation	is	in	the	increased	horizontal	95	segmentation	of	the	genders	across	the	profession	(Bolton	and	Muzio	2008).	For	96	example,	in	medicine,	women	are	encouraged	to	consider	careers	in	family	and	97	general	practice,	and	paediatrics,	whereas	men	are	more	likely	to	go	into	98	specialisms	such	as	neurosurgery	and	orthopaedics	(Adams	2010;	Kuhlmann	99	and	Bourgeault	2008;	Wedin	2009).	Similarly	in	business,	women	are	more	likely	100	to	be	encouraged	into	roles	in	human	resources,	whereas	men	are	more	likely	to	101	be	considered	for	jobs	in	finance	and	information	technology	(Bolton	and	Muzio	102	2008).	The	masculine	dominated	specialisms	tend	to	attract	more	status	and	103	compensation.	104		 Many	of	these	processes	can	be	observed	in	veterinary	medicine.	Despite	105	the	low	numbers	of	male	veterinary	students,	the	majority	of	graduates	choosing	106	jobs	in	farm	animal	or	production	medicine	are	still	men	(Shepherd	and	Pikel	107	2011),	and	there	is	evidence	to	suggest	a	male	bias	towards	farm	animal	practice	108	or	production	medicine	(Serpell	2005).	This	indicates	a	degree	of	horizontal	109	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		5	“segregation”	(Reskin	1993)	by	sex	across	career	categories	within	the	110	profession.	It	is	perhaps	helpful	to	point	out	that	the	categories	we	often	use	in	111	veterinary	medicine,	while	often	described	in	terms	of	species,	functionally	have	112	more	to	do	with	the	purpose	of	the	animals	in	the	practice:	cats,	dogs	and	most	113	other	small	animals	are	generally	used	as	pets	or	companions;	farm	animal	114	species	such	as	cattle,	sheep,	pigs	and	poultry	are	usually	used	for	food	and	fibre	115	production;	and,	horses	can	be	used	either	as	companion	animals	or	as	working	116	animals,	and	so,	in	many	ways,	cross	the	boundaries	of	the	other	species	groups.	117	There	are,	of	course,	still	mixed	animal	practices,	especially	in	rural	parts	of	the	118	country,	although	even	these	are	becoming	more	segregated	internally,	even	if	119	some	of	the	practitioners	work	in	all	species	areas.	120		 Rollin	(2006)	describes	the	two	main	roles	of	veterinary	surgeons	to	be	121	equivalent	to	those	of	the	paediatrician	and	the	auto	mechanic.	A	good	clinician	122	combines	both	of	these	roles	in	their	practice.	However,	as	the	profession	123	becomes	more	polarised	into	species	specialisms,	I	have	found	in	my	research	124	that	there	is	a	perception	amongst	veterinary	students	that	companion	animal	125	practice	represents	much	more	of	the	paediatrician-type	skills,	such	as	caring,	126	nurturing	and	a	relational	approach	to	clients.	In	contrast,	production	animal	127	practice	requires	more	of	a	mechanic	approach,	with	systemic,	transactional	and	128	instrumental	skills	foremost.	In	our	society,	we	are	conditioned	to	think	of	that	129	division	of	labour	as	gendered.	130	Feminist	theory	argues	that	men	and	women	are	exposed	to	different	131	models	of	moral	development	during	their	childhood,	which	instils	different	132	values	and	characteristics,	based	on	their	gender	(Gilligan	1982)	and	which	leads	133	to	gender	stereotypes	or	schemas	(Valian	2000).	Gilligan	argued	that	women’s	134	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		6	development	is	relational,	and	is	based	on	a	“recognition	of	responsibility”	for	135	one	another,	termed	an	“Ethic	of	Care”	(Gilligan	1982/2003;	Noddings	1984).	136	This	is	in	contrast	to	a	more	masculine	ideal	of	a	“Hierarchy	of	Power,”	which	is	137	based	on	moral	judgment	that	distances	itself	from	emotion.	The	concept	of	138	caring	or	nurturing,	therefore,	is	highly	gendered	in	our	society.	That	means	that	139	when	veterinary	students	are	associating	caring	and	emotional	work	to	140	companion	animal	practice,	there	is	an	implicit	gendering	of	that	kind	of	practice	141	as	more	feminine,	and	production	animal	medicine	as	being	more	masculine.	142		 In	my	research,	interviewing	final	year	veterinary	students	about	their	143	career	options	and	choices,	the	participants	denied	that	there	were	any	gender	144	differences.	However,	this	was	not	supported	by	their	choices,	and	the	way	that	145	they	discussed	those	choices,	both	of	which	were	clearly	gendered.	It	only	takes	a	146	quick	Google	images	search	to	demonstrate	that	western	society	genders	jobs:	147	paediatricians	are	almost	always	idealised	as	women;	whereas	images	of	148	mechanics	will	most	often	show	men.	Similarly,	the	students	in	my	study	had	149	internalised	gender	expectations	about	what	kind	of	veterinary	work	suited	150	them	better,	based	along	gender	lines.	Small	animal	and	other	companion	animal	151	work	was	seen	as	requiring	more	emotional,	caring	work,	with	one	woman	152	saying	that	she	thought	that	women	preferred	small	animal	work	because	their	153	main	goal	was	to	make	sure	that	their	patients	were	“happy	and	healthy.”	In	154	contrast,	large	animal	work,	especially	in	production	medicine,	was	seen	as	more	155	distanced	from	that	kind	of	relational	approach,	and	was,	therefore,	more	156	appealing	to	the	men.	For	example,	one	male	participant	said	that	farm	animal	157	practice	is	“all	rational.	There’s	no	emotion	involved,	no	owners	or	anything…	158	very	black	and	white.	I	like	that.”	159	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		7	Of	course,	career	options	are	rarely	as	straightforward	as	my	research	160	participants’	perceptions.	But	even	when	the	students	crossed	gender	lines	in	161	these	stereotypes,	they	often	did	it	for	gender-normed	reasons:	one	woman	162	wanted	to	work	in	dairy	practice,	because	she	was	looking	forward	to	building	163	relationships	with	the	farmers,	saying	“I	feel	like	communication	is	the	key	that	164	connects	us	to	our	clients;”	and,	a	male	participant	liked	the	idea	of	small	animal	165	practice	because	he	felt	that	it	would	help	him	to	be	a	good	breadwinner	for	his	166	family,	saying,	“being	a	veterinarian	will	hopefully	give	me	an	income	where	I	167	can	provide	for	my	family.”	168	This	respondent’s	comment	about	providing	an	adequate	income	for	his	169	family	represents	a	more	general	concern	about	work-life	balance	expressed	by	170	the	students	I	interviewed.	Both	men	and	women	discussed	their	desire	to	171	balance	work	with	the	needs	of	their	family	life	and	quality	of	life,	but	there	were	172	gender	differences	in	how	this	was	expressed.	These	are	issues	that	all	of	us	in	173	the	profession	face,	and,	if	we	want	to	create	sustainable	career	paths,	we	must	174	consider	gender	as	a	factor.	175	Threat	or	Opportunity	176		 All	of	these	effects	of	the	feminisation	of	veterinary	medicine	have	the	177	potential	to	have	a	profound	impact	on	how	the	profession	evolves	in	the	future.	178	We	know	from	the	research	that	there	are	many	potential	pitfalls	associated	with	179	similar	demographic	changes	in	other	professions,	and	that	we	are	starting	to	see	180	evidence	of	some	of	the	same	process	in	veterinary	medicine.	Ultimately,	181	however,	I	am	optimistic	about	our	profession’s	future,	based	on	our	ability	to	182	adapt	and	respond	to	challenges	in	the	past.	I	believe	that	by	understanding	183	these	processes,	being	open	about	discussing	them,	and	responding	in	an	184	Deleted: history185	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		8	appropriate	and	mindful	manner,	we	can	use	these	challenges	as	an	opportunity	186	to	strengthen	the	profession.	There	are	many	different	ways	to	do	this,	which	187	will	require	input	and	discussion	from	all	sectors	of	the	profession.	From	my	188	perspective	as	a	veterinary	educator,	I	see	four	main	areas	where	we	can	start	to	189	respond:	190	1. Recruitment	–	earlier	and	more	active	outreach	to	reach	a	more	diverse	191	population	of	students.	192	2. Educational	initiatives	to	prepare	students	for	the	realities	of	the	193	profession.	194	3. Re-training	in	diverse	career	paths,	especially	for	vets	returning	to	the	195	workforce	after	career	breaks	or	seeking	different	opportunities	due	to	196	burnout	in	their	initial	area	of	interest.	197	4. Advocacy	and	Leadership	to	the	public	and	policy	makers	about	the	198	important	contribution	of	all	veterinary	careers	in	order	to	develop	the	199	status	and	compensation	of	the	profession.	200	The	details	of	how	we	implement	these	responses	are	beyond	the	scope	of	201	this	article.	However,	I	see	hope	in	recent	initiatives	in	the	veterinary	profession,	202	such	as	the	joint	BVA/RCVS	Veterinary	Futures	project,	which	addresses	these,	203	and	other	key	challenges.	Others	are	starting	to	think	and	act	on	these	complex	204	issues.	But	they	will	only	be	successful	if	we	get	everyone	involved.	Knowing	so	205	many	individuals	in	this	profession	who	have	and	continue	to	inspire	me	with	206	their	commitment,	creativity	and	passion,	I	am	hopeful	that	we	will	respond	207	appropriately.	208	References	209	ALLEN:	FEMINISATION	OF	THE	VETERINARY	PROFESSION		9	ADAMS,	T.	L.	(2010)	Gender	and	Feminization	in	Health	Care	Professions.	210	Sociology	Compass	4,	454-465	211	BOLTON,	S.	&		MUZIO,	D.	(2008)	The	paradoxical	processes	of	feminization	in	the	212	professions:	the	case	of	established,	aspiring	and	semi-professions.	Work,	213	Employment	&	Society	22,	281-299	214	CHIEFFO,	C.,	KELLY,	A.	M.	&		FERGUSON,	J.	(2008)	Trends	in	gender,	215	employment,	salary,	and	debt	of	graduates	of	US	veterinary	medical	schools	and	216	colleges.	J	Am	Vet	Med	Assoc	233,	910-917	217	DUNLOP,	R.	&		WILLIAMS,	D.	(1996)	Veterinary	Medicine:	An	Illustrated	History.	218	St	Louis,	MS,	Mosby-Year	Book,	Inc.	219	GILLIGAN,	C.	(1982)	In	a	different	voice:	Psychological	theory	and	women's	220	development.	Cambridge,	MA,	Harvard	University	Press	221	GILLIGAN,	C.	(1982/2003)	An	Ethic	of	Care.	In	The	Columbia	Documentary	222	History	of	American	Women	Since	1941.	Ed	H.	SIGERMAN.	New	York,	NY,	223	Columbia	University	Press.	pp	369-377	224	GREENHILL,	L.	M.	(2014)	Annual	Data	Report	2013-2014	[Internet].	Washington,	225	DC,	Association	of	American	Veterinary	Medical	Colleges	226	KUHLMANN,	E.	&		BOURGEAULT,	I.	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Feminisation of the Veterinary Profession: Opportunity or Threat?

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