Borg, Barbara

Borg, Gregor

Strauss, Harald

Propylaeum-DOK

Originalveröffentlichung in: Rammimair, D. et al. (Hg.), Applied mineralogy in research, economy, technology, ecology and culture 
(Rotterdam 2000) S. 951-954 Applied Mineralogy, Rammimair et al. (eds)©2000BalkBma, Rotterdam, ISBN9058091635 
A combined isotopic, petrographic, and archaeological provenance study 
of the marble sources for the Apollo temple of Didyma, W-Anatolia 
B.E.Borg 
Archaeological Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany 
G. Borg 
Institute ofGeological Sciences, Halle-University, Germany 
H. Strauss 
Institutfär Geologie, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany (Presently: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut 
und Museum, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany) 
A B S T R A C T : The temple o f Apol lo at Didyma, W-Anatol ia , has a long building history from ca. 300 B.C. 
well into the imperial era. A m o n g various other details, inscriptions from the 3 r i and 21*1 c. B.C. name the 
quarries around Lake Bafa (Bafa Gölü) ca. 26 k m N E o f Didyma as its marble source. However, recent pet-
rographical and isotopic analyses of the marbles both from these quarries (representative set o f 58 samples) 
and from the temple (47 samples) have shown that additional sources have been exploited. In the Hellenistic 
era, imported marble f rom the Aegean island o f Thasos was used in combination with Bafa Gölü marble for 
the dodekastylos (front hall). Düring the imperial period, another type o f marble was used which most proba-
bly comes from the quarries o f Marmara (Proconnesos). This has major inferences on our notion o f the tem-
ple's building history, economics, and project planning. 
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N 
The famous oracle temple o f Apol lo in Didyma, W -
Anatolia, has a particularly long building history. 
Constructions commenced ca. 300 B.C. and albeit 
continuing building activities well into the imperial 
era the gigantic monument o f about 60 x 118 m f loor 
space with 122 planned columns o f nearly 20 m 
height was never finished. W e are exceptionally well 
informed about the details o f these building activi­
ties through several inscriptions, from the 3 and 2nd 
c. B.C. (Wiegand, Rehm & Härder 1958), which 
also give the names o f two ancient ports from where 
the marble had been shipped. These ports and the 
quarries have been identified by Peschlow-Bindokat 
(1981) at the southern shore o f Lake Bafa (Bafa 
Gölü) , ca. 26 k m N E o f Didyma, which, in antiquity, 
was an embayment o f the Aegean sea. The quarries 
were the property o f the ancient city o f Miletus 
which also owned the sanctuary. It therefore hardly 
came to anybodies mind to look for additional mar­
ble sources for the temple although Peschlow-
Bindokat (1981) and German (1981) had already 
noticed a coarse-crystalline marble they could not 
locate at Bafa Gölü. 
A s part o f a larger Cooperation project with K . 
Tuchelt from the Deutsches Archäologisches Insti­
tut, Berlin, devoted to the geological setting and the 
natural resources o f the sanctuary, we also studied 
the building materials. It quickly turned out that the 
marble used for the temple is much more diverse 
then previously observed. 
2. G E O L O G Y O F T H E B A F A G Ö L Ü A R E A 
The marbles at the N- , E-, and S-shores o f Bafa 
Gölü are situated within the contact metamorphic 
aureole, S, S W , and W o f the granitic gneiss core o f 
the approximately 550 M a old Menderes Massif 
(Loos & Reischmann 1999). The most recent tec-
tono-metamorphic overprint o f the gneisses and the 
surrounding Sediments occurred in the Tertiary, 
during the Alpine Orogeny. A Palaeozoic and a 
Mesozoic age have been attributed to the marbles S E 
and S o f Bafa Gölü, respectively (Dürr 1975). 
The marbles on the SE- and N-shore o f Bafa 
Gölü occur enclosed in muscovite schists as steeply 
south to vertically dipping well-defined lenses (max. 
40 x 250 m). The quarries on the S-shore are hosted 
by moderately south-dipping marble lenses, also en­
closed in muscovite schists and phyllites. However, 
the marble lenses on the S-shore are usually smaller 
and far more irregulär in shape compared to the ones 
on the E-shore. A marked macroscopic petrological 
discrepancy between the E-shore and the S-shore 
marbles is the different textural occurrence o f dolo-
mite within the predominantly calcitic marbles (cf. 
German 1981). The S-shore marbles display dolo-
mitic layers o f up to 40 cm thickness which have 
been boudinaged with individual boudins showing 
(ductile) wrap-around textures along their outer 
margins and sets o f sharp, parallel (brittle) fractures 
within the individual boudins. Dolomitic portions 
within the E-shore marble are less abundant and oc­
cur as mm-thin, parallel, laterally discontinuous 
951 
laminae, or as small-scale, complex, ptygmatic folds 
within the calcitic marble. These difFerent textural 
styles va iy systematically with the distance to the 
gneiss contact and thus represent the contact meta-
morphic gradient. 
Other differences do not discriminate the two lo-
calities as sharply but can serve as general indica-
tors. E-shore marble is generally coarser (German 
1981). Crystal sizes often vary extremely in one Sin-
gle sample, but medium crystal sizes are generally 
0.8 to 1.0 m m (in rare cases up to 1.5 mm) , with 
maximum crystal sizes o f 2.0 mm, sometimes 2.5 
mm, and in rare cases even above that size. S-shore 
marbles show medium crystal sizes o f 0.3 to 0.5 m m 
with maximum crystal sizes rarely exceeding 1.0 
mm. Middle to dark grey marble is quite abundant in 
the western S-shore quarries but scarcely found at 
the E-shore. 
3. S A M P L I N G A N D M E T H O D O L O G Y 
3.1 Sampling 
Düring the years o f 1995 to 1999 we sampled the 
quarries scattered along the N , E, and S coast o f 
Bafa Gölü for a representative set o f samples for 
both petrographic and isotopic analyses. Düring the 
same period we collected samples from the temple, 
mainly loose fragments o f fractured blocks and col-
umn drums but also drill cores (10 m m 0 ) obtained 
during the restoration activities. 
3.2 Methodology 
Isotope analyses were carried out at the Institut für 
Geologie, Ruhr-Universität-Bochum. Carbon and 
oxygen isotopes are noted as delta-values in per mi l 
relative to the P D B Standard (Craig 1957). 
The petrographic study has been limited to the 
macroscopic (hand lens) scale since the method had 
to be applicable to all o f the architectural elements 
o f the monument on site. 
4. A N A L Y T I C A L R E S U L T S 
4.1 Bafa Gölü marbles 
Quarry samples from Bafa Gö lü display isotope sig-
natures that plot into a distinct area covering and 
slightly extending the isotopic field published by 
Herz (1987; this paper Fig. 1). T o date, N - , E- , and 
S-shore quarries are not generally distinguishable by 
isotopic analysis although signatures o f samples 
from E-shore quarries nos. I and V (Peschlow-
Bindokat 1981 Fig. 64) show particularly limited 
variations with the highest 8 l s O values, and ratios 
for the S-shore Lefka-Bur-Da quarry area 
(Peschlow-Bindokat 1981 Fig. 5) similarly plot into 
a small field immediately adjacent to the former one. 
For petrographic characteristics see above. 
4.2 Temple marbles 
Interpretation o f data o f a large monument like the 
temple must operate with suppositions o f practica-
bility and historical probability which, i f accepted, 
can at the same time support the interpretation. (i) 
Written sources confirm that large amounts o f mar-
ble were taken from the Bafa Gö lü quarries, nearby 
and accessible by boat; those on the S-shore be-
longed to the owner o f the sanctuary, the city o f 
Miletus. Hence, it is appropriate to attribute any 
marble used at the temple with corresponding pet-
rographic and isotopic characteristics to this source. 
(ii) It is highly unlikely that single blocks o f marble 
have been ordered from a source otherwise disre-
garded. Thus, only i f certain criteria relate to a larger 
number o f architectural elements can an additional 
marble source be assumed. (iii) Since overland 
transport is excessively more expensive than trans-
port by boat, for the large quantities needed any 
quarry accessible by boat wi l l more likely be the 
marble source for a temple than one that requires 
long transport overland. Regarding the Apol lo tem-
ple we thus can conclude as follows. 
S-shore marble from the Lefka-Bur-Da showing 
the characteristic dolomite boudins is best determin-
able among the temple marbles. It was used for the 
krepis (stepped platform), the stairway inside the se-
kos (walled in open court yard replacing the com-
mon roofed temple building proper), the door sills, 
the sculpted capitals o f the sekos pilasters, for col-
umn plinths on all sides o f the temple and for col-
Figure 1. Bafa Gölü quarry samples 
E-shore quarries: S-shore quarries: 
quarry I western pari 
quarry II Lefka-Bur-Da 
6 quarry IV 
quarry V N-shore quarry 
Herakleia field after Herz 1987. 
952 
umn drums in the dodekastylos (front hall), in both 
front colonnades, in the inner N - and in the inner W -
colonnades. Isotopic signatures plot well into the 
Bafa Gölü field (Fig. 2). 
Middle- to dark-grey marble from the western S-
shore quarries was used for the krepis and inner 
stairway but only rarely for plinths, column bases, 
and drums. 
The very coarse-crystalline marble noticed already 
by Peschlow-Bindokat (1981) and German (1981) 
was used much more widely than previously real-
ised. It is generally white with grey 'clouds'. Calcite 
crystals vary extremely in size but ränge mostly 
between 1.5 - 3.0 m m with conspicuous crystals o f 
maximum sizes o f up to 7.0 mm. Only three samples 
could be taken for isotopic analysis. They plot well 
away from the Bafa Gölü field and within the field 
o f Thasos Al ik i (Fig. 3). This Thasian marble is 
known to be extremely coarse-crystalline (Sodini et 
al. 1980), a criterion that does not apply to any o f the 
marbles with overlapping isotopic fields. Thus, this 
distinctive marble, used for the reveals o f the major 
portal and for column drums o f the dodekastylos, 
must originate from the Aegean island of Thasos. 
Another marble type, used exclusively for the 
outer colonnades, is most obviously distinguishable 
b y its banding in various shades o f white and grey. It 
also shows conspicuous m m - to cm-thick dolomitic 
bands which, quite differently from the Bafa Gö lü 
marbles, continue laterally with a constant thickness. 
Medium crystal sizes are between 0.5 and 0.8 mm, 
maximum crystal sizes only rarely exceed 2.0 mm. 
Isotopic signatures o f the 16 samples taken plot into 
a field partly overlapping the Bafa Gölü field but 
clearly exceeding it (Fig. 4). Provided that the 
banded marbles have a common origin - an as-
sumption highly probable on petrographical, practi-
cal, and historical reasons - the signatures suggest 
either Denizli or Marmara as provenance. The iso-
topic values would favour Denizli since 5 samples 
plot outside the isotopic field o f Marmara published 
by Herz (1987) but only two outside the respective 
field o f Denizli. Yet , a field including all o f the data 
published by Manfra et al. (1975) would also include 
all but one o f our plots. According to Monna & Pen-
sabene (1977), only marble from Marmara shows 
the characteristic banding displayed by the temple 
marble. On practical and historical reasons as well 
Marmara is the far more probable source. The quar-
ries near Denizli lie about 200 k m inland. Its marble 
could only have been shipped on the Lykos and 
Menderes rivers which - i f at all - were navigable 
only during snow melt and the rainy season. Hence, 
it is generally assumed that except for sarcophagi 
they were only exploited for local use. In contrast, 
the Marmara quarries on the island o f Prokonnesos 
l ie directly at seashore. They were imperial property, 
operated by slaves and State prisoners. Together with 
the abundance and good quality o f the marble, this 
5 i 
O 
TO 
0 - I — i — . — . — , — . — . — , — i — . — . — . — i — . — . — . — i 
- 8 - 8 - 4 - 2 0 
detta13C 
Figure 2. Temple marbles from Bafa-Gölfl 
temple samples 
quarry samples: # - S-shore; 1 - E-shore; - N-shore 
o 
oo 
5 -
4 - Thasos Vattj i__ Thasos Aliki 
H 3 -
2 - y Thasos Phaneri 
1 Bafa Gölü 
0 
•6 -4 -2 0 2 
detta13C 
Figure 3. Temple marbles from Thasos 
temple samples (two signatures exactly identical) 
Thasos fields after Herz 1987; Bafa Gölü field this study 
5 1 
0 4 , • • r — - . , , , , . . , , . . , 
- 8 - 6 - 4 - 2 0 
cfeftaf3C 
figure 4. Temple marbles trom Marmara 
- temple samples 
. - quarry samples after Manfra et. al 1975 
Marmara & Denizli fields after Herz 1987 
made them the most productive exporter o f marble 
in the Roman empire. The rest o f the marble used for 
the temple most probably comes from the Bafa Gö lü 
area since its petrographic as well as its isotopic 
953 
characteristics correspond (Fig. 2). A s noted 
above, there are no unambiguous criteria for the 
distinction between E-shore quarries and the purer 
and whiter marbles from the N - and S-shores. 
However, since there is quite a quantity o f pure, 
white marble with medium and maximum crystal-
linities that exceed those o f the average white N -
and S-shore marbles a certain percentage o f this 
marble probably originates frorn the E-shore quar-
ries (cf. German 1981). A t least two samples also 
show 8 1 8 0 ratios unparalleled among the samples 
frorn N - and S-shore quarries but characteristic o f 
E-shore quarries I and V (Fig. 1 & 2). 
5. H I S T O R I C A L I M P L I C A T I O N S 
Unlike its 6* c. B.C. predecessor for which only 
marble frorn the Aegean island o f Naxos was used 
(publication o f data in prep.), the later temple o f 
Apol lo at Didyma was built frorn marble o f differ-
ent provenances. The present study has confirmed 
that a great amount o f marble comes frorn the 
quarries on the S-shore o f Bafa Gölü owned by the 
city o f Miletus, major financier o f the bmlding ac-
tivities, but also from the E-shore, which - at least 
traditionally - belonged to the city o f Herakleia. 
Nevertheless, the marble from the Bafa Gölü 
quarries did not suffice, as is shown by the importa 
tion of Thasian marble. Its distribution within the 
dodekastylos - often mixed with Bafa Gölü marble 
in one Single column - suggests that Thasian mar-
ble was supplemented to speed up building activi-
ties in the 2nd c. B.C. Only one to two groups o f la-
bourers could work at the same time in most o f the 
small Milesian quarries. Since this is not a fact to 
be particularly proud o f it is rather unsurprising 
that it is not mentioned in the inseriptions. 
Düring the early empire, when, in a new effort, 
the outer E- , most o f the N- , and the eastemmost S-
colonnades were erected, the local supply was sup-
plemented and, perhaps, for the N-side, substituted 
by marble from the imperial quarries o f Marmara. 
It had the advantage o f easy and relatively eco-
nomical accessibility but also o f high quality. 
Whereas the western Milesian quarries produced 
predoniinantly grey marbles which may not have 
suited the patrons on aesthetic reasons, the eastem 
Milesian marble with its numerous dolomitic 
boudins was particularly hard to work. O n the 
other hand, the high quality Herakleia marble may 
well have been too luxurious and too expensive. In 
Diocletian's price edict from the beginning o f the 
4 * c. A . D . it is calculated at 75 denari per Square 
foot whereas Marmara marble was almost half that 
price with only 40 denari (Monna & Pensabene 
1977). 
6. C O N C L U S I O N S 
Combined isotopic and petrographic analyses o f 
marble samples have proven to be particularly suc-
cessful in attributing certain architectural elements 
o f a temple to their quarry provenances when com-
pared with published data and considered in terms 
o f practicability and historical probability. In the 
present case, it could be shown that marble from 
the quarries around the Bafa Gölü, known to have 
been exploited for the construction o f the temple o f 
Apol lon at Didyma, was indeed supplemented by 
imported marble from the Aegean island o f Thasos 
during the 2nd c. B .C . and, during the Roman em-
pire, by Proconnesian marble o f Marmara, with 
major inferences for the sanctuaries project plan-
ning. 
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S 
We are particularly indebted to K. Tuchelt for his respon-
siveness and support during our Cooperation project We also 
owe special thanks to L. Haselberger, Chr. Kronewirfh, 
Semih Tulay, and the TurMsh govemment representalives. 
R E F E R E N C E S 
Craig, H. 1957. Isotopic Standards for carbon and oxygen and 
correction factors for mass spectromenic analysis of 
C02. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 12: 13-149. 
Dürr, S. 1975. Ober das Alter und geotektonische Stellung 
des Menderes-Kristallins/SW-Anatolien und seine 
Äquivalente in der mittleren Ägäis. Habilitationsschrift, 
Marburg/Lahn. 
German, K. 1981. Lagerstätteneigenschaften und 
herkunftstypische MerkmalsmustBr von Marmoren am 
Südwestrand des Menderes-Massifs (Südwestanatolien). 
In Peschlow-Bindokat (1981): 214-235. 
Herz, N. 1987. Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios: A data 
base for classical Greek and Roman marble. Archaeome-
&y29(l): 35-43. 
Loos, S. & Reischmann, Th. 1999. T ie evolution of the 
southern Menderes Massif in SW Turkey as revealed by 
zircon dating. Journal of the Geological Society, London 
156:1021-1030. 
Manfra, L., Masi, U. & Turi, B. 1975. Carbon and oxygen 
isotope ratios of marbles from some ancient quarries of 
western Anatolia and their archaeological significance. 
Archaeometry 17(2): 215-221. 
Monna, D. & Pensabene, P. 1977, Marmi dell'Asia Minore. 
Rom: Consiglio Nazdonale delle Ricerche. 
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Herakleia am Latmos. Jahrbuch des Deutschen 
Archäologischen Insütuts 96: 157-235. 
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954 


A combined isotopic, petrographic, and archaeological provenance study of the marble sources for the Apollo temple of Didyma, W-Anatolia

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A combined isotopic, petrographic, and archaeological provenance study of the marble sources for the Apollo temple of Didyma, W-Anatolia

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