Breast cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer in women. X-ray mammography is the most widely used technique for early detection but has limitations. In this paper, an alternative approach for breast cancer detection using microwave imaging is presented. This is based upon microwave indirect holographic approach, central to which is the use of a synthetic reference beam. This approach has benefits in terms of simplicity and expense. Experimental results using a simple breast phantom are included to demonstrate the potential of this approach

Elsdon, Michael

Fdo, Michael J.

Leach, Mark

Smith, Dave

English

Northumbria Research Link

Northumbria Research Link
Citation:  Elsdon,  Michael,  Fdo,  Michael  J.,  Leach,  Mark  and  Smith,  Dave  (2010)  Breast  cancer 
detection using microwave holography. In: 7th International Symposium on Communication Systems 
Networks  and  Digital  Signal  processing  (CSNDSP),  21-23  July  2010,  Northumbria  University, 
Newcastle upon Tyne. 
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Breast Cancer Detection using Microwave
Holography
Dr. M. Elsdon, Mr M.J. Fdo, Dr. M. Leach, Prof. S.J. Foti, Prof. D. Smith
Microwave Imaging Research Group, CEIS,
Northumbria University,
NE1 8ST, UK
e-mail: michael.elsdon@northumbria.ac.uk
Abstract— Breast cancer is one of the most common
forms of cancer in women. X-ray mammography is the
most widely used technique for early detection but has
limitations. In this paper, an alternative approach for
breast cancer detection using microwave imaging is
presented. This is based upon microwave indirect
holographic approach, central to which is the use of a
synthetic reference beam. This approach has benefits in
terms of simplicity and expense. Experimental results
using a simple breast phantom are included to
demonstrate the potential of this approach.
Keywords: Holography; breast cancer detection; microwave
holography; microwave imaging; image reconstruction;
holographic recording.
I. INTRODUCTION
Breast cancer affects many women, and early
detection and timely medical intervention are the key
to long term survival and life quality for patients [1].
The current gold-standard for medical imaging of
breast cancer is the X-ray [2]. However, this screening
tool has a number of disadvantages. These include
missing approximately 10-30% of breast cancers [3],
whilst concerns have also been raised about the high
number of false positives [4,5]. A further disadvantage
of X-ray mammography is the difficulty in imaging
women with dense breasts [6]. Moreover, the ionizing
properties of X-rays restricts the frequency of
screening.
These limitations motivate the search for new
methods of breast tumour detection. Other established
diagnostic techniques such as breast ultrasound and MRI,
which do not expose the patient to ionizing radiation are
also used for breast cancer detection. Breast ultrasound is
considered to be the appropriate modality for the initial
evaluation of a palpable breast mass in pregnant women
and for evaluation of a palpable breast mass in a women
under the age of 30 [7,8]. Breast ultrasound also has some
limitations, which include relatively higher cost
compared with mammography; operator-skill
dependency; and the time required to carry out the study.
Perhaps the biggest disadvantage of this modality is its
higher false negative rate, when compared to
mammography, for general screening. MRI has been
shown to be effective in screening women with increased
risk of breast cancer. Advantages of MRI include
detection of small cancers; use of non-ionizing radiation;
and its effectiveness in imaging dense breast tissue that is
characteristic of pre-menopausal women. Disadvantages
of this technique include restricted availability and low
specificity. Moreover, this technique is much more
expensive than X-ray mammography.
Microwave imaging of breast tumours offers
an alternative method of breast cancer detection and
has been the subject of much study. X-rays detect
structural changes in tissue cells whilst microwaves
detect changes in dielectric properties, which occur
before structural changes. Hence microwave imaging
can potentially offer an earlier detection of cancer.
Several microwave imaging techniques have been
suggested, including microwave tomography and
confocal imaging. The majority of these approaches
are based on the use of pulsed techniques where the
location of the tumour is obtained by processing data
in the time domain.
It has recently been reported that an indirect
holographic technique can be used to reconstruct the
complex aperture field of an antenna from a single
scalar intensity pattern [9]. This work has been
extended to provide detection of metallic objects for
use in security screening [10]. In this paper, it is
shown how this technique can be extended for early
stage breast cancer detection. Experimental results
using a simulated phantom are included to
demonstrate the potential of this approach.
II. DIRECT HOLOGRAPHY
The use of Direct Holography for the
determination of antenna radiation patterns and imaging
of aperture fields has received much attention [11-16].
The same technique can also be adapted to reconstruct 3D
images of objects from complex near field measurements.
For the imaging of objects, a complex field pattern,
E(x,y), is recorded over a 2D aperture located at a
distance, z = d, from the object. Performing a fourier
transform on this field converts the data to a plane wave
spectrum, A(kx,ky).
  


 dydxeyxEyxEFkkA
ykxkj
yx
yx .),(
2
1
),(),(
)..(
(1)
Assuming that the original coordinate system is
located at the plane of the scanning aperture, z = 0, the
complex scattered field at the plane, E (x,y, z = d), can be
obtained using a back-propagation approach [28].
   


 yx
ykxkjdjk
yx dkdkeekkAdzyxE
yxz ..,
2
1
,,
)..(.
(2)
where
 2220 yxz kkkk  (3)
III. INDIRECT MICROWAVE
HOLOGRAPHY
Indirect holographic imaging consists of two
stages: the recording of a sampled intensity pattern
and image reconstruction. The off-axis hologram was
first introduced by Leith and Upatnieks [10] for the
recording of optical wavefronts. In the recording
stage, an intensity pattern is formed from the
interference pattern between the scattered wavefront
and a coherent plane wave, introduced at an offset
angle to the recording plane. This is illustrated in
figure 1.
Figure 1: Off-axis Hologram
The adoption of this technique at microwave
frequencies has proved difficult due to the practical
problems associated with providing an offset
reference wave. A technique to overcome this
problem has recently been described [9].
The basis of this technique is to replace the
offset radiated reference wave by an electronically
synthesized reference wave. This is derived by
tapping off a fraction of the signal used to
illuminate the object using a directional coupler. The
phase of this signal is controlled by varying the
phase shifters under computer control. To form an
intensity pattern, the reference signal is combined
with the scattered signal of the object. An
diagrammatic representation of this arrangement is
shown in figure 2.
The measurements are taken over a regular
rectangular grid spaced at /2, with a linear phase
increment introduced by the variable phase shifters as the
circulator moves in the x direction.
Figure 2: Experimental Arrangement for Intensity Pattern Formation
The form of the resultant intensity pattern is
given by:
2
),(),(),( yxRyxEyxI 
),(),(),(),(),(),(
22
yxRyxEyxRyxEyxRyxE   (4)
where E(x,y) represents the complex scattered field over
the x,y plane, R(x,y) represents the complex field of the
reference wave over the (x,y) plane and * denoted
complex conjugate. If the reference wave is introduced
along the x axis, it takes the form:
xjkxeEyxR  0),( (5)
xjk xeEyxR   0),( (6)
The first stage in the process to reconstruct a
high quality image of the original object is to take the
Fourier Transform of this intensity pattern (4) to obtain a
pattern in the spatial frequency domain (7).
     22 ),(),(),( yxRFyxEFyxIF 
       ),(),(),(),( yxRFyxEFyxRFyxEF  
(7)
Provided that the spatial frequency of the scattered object
is band limited and a sufficient phase shift can be applied
to the reference wave, the four components in (7) can be
separated into three regions. This is shown
diagrammatically in figure 3.
kx
ky
Figure 3: Spectral representation of an off-axis hologram
The first two terms of equation (7) correspond to
the auto-correlation of the scattered object wave and the
reference wave respectively. These components appear in
the centre of the spectrum as a result of their DC content.
The third and fourth terms of equation (7) relate to the
convolution of the reference wave with the scattered
wave and it’s complex conjugate. These are offset from
the origin by an amount related to the angle of the
reference wave and contain sufficient information to
reconstruct the image. The use of a synthesised offset
reference plane wave allows the third and fourth terms of
equation (7) to be separated in the spatial frequency
domain. The next stage in the reconstruction process is to
filter off the unwanted terms and centralise the required
term to give the plane wave spectrum of the original
object:
     yxEFEyxF ,.,' 0 (8)
Taking the inverse fourier transform of (8) gives
the original scattered field of the object at the
measurement plane, z = 0:
     yxEEyxIFG ,.,' 0 (9)
A focused image of the object at different
distances can be obtained by back-propagating the PWS
of the object (8) through the desired distance, z = d [17].
This particular step follows the same approach to that
described for direct holography (eqn. 2).
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
To demonstrate the ability of this technique to
produce good quality images, a modified breast
phantom has been adopted. Winters et al [18] recently
reported that the dielectric properties of skin, normal
breast fat and tumour have dielectric constants of
approximately 10, 30 and 50 respectively. To simulate
this, a breast phantom with a similar ratio of skin: fat:
tumour has been adopted. In this experiment, the
measurements are performed in free-space, with a block
of wood, and sheet of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This is
shown in figure 4. The dielectric properties of materials
were confirmed by measurements taken using a Agilent
E8364B PNA Network Analyser and Agilent 85070E
dielectric probe kit.
Results have been taken at a distance of
5cm from the simulated tumour at a frequency of
10GHz over a scanning aperture 72cm x 72cm, with
a sample size of 1cm. The reconstructed image is
shown in Figure 5 together with an outline of the
original object for comparison. It can be seen that
good correlation has been achieved between the
original object and the reconstructed image.
Figure 4. Simulated breast phantom
(a)
(b)
Figure. 5: Reconstructed (a) Magnitude and (b) phase images
W
O
O
D
(T
u
m
o
u
r)
P
V
C
S
H
E
E
T
(S
kin
)
8
cm
7
c
m
2
3
cm
8
c
m
2
9
c
m
2
1
cm
2
2
cm
7
2
c
m
7
2
cm
1
7
cm
2
6
cm
W
O
O
D
(T
u
m
o
u
r)
P
V
C
S
H
E
E
T
(S
k
in
)
8
c
m
7
c
m
2
3
c
m
8
cm
2
9
cm
2
1
cm
2
2
cm
7
2
cm
7
2
cm
1
7
cm
2
6
cm
V. CONCLUSION
A technique for the detection of breast cancer
based on a novel indirect holographic technique has
been demonstrated. Practical results have shown that
this technique is successful for determining both the
location and shape of the simulated tumor. The use
of this approach offers considerable benefits in terms
of simplicity and expense when compared with other
microwave imaging techniques.
REFERENCES
[1] ‘Cancer facts and figures 2003’, American Cancer
Society, www.cancer.org
[2] M Brown, et al.: ‘Screening mammography in community
practice’, Amer. J. Roentgen., 1995, 165, pp1373-1377
[3] Committee on Technologies for the Early Detection of
Breast Cancer, Mammography and Beyond: Developing
Technologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer,
S.J. Nass, I.C. Henderson, and J.C. Lashof, Eds. National
Cancer Policy Board, Institute of Medicine, and
Commission on Life Studies, National Research Council,
2001.
[4]. F. M. Hall, J.M. Storella, D.Z. Silverstone, and G. Wyshak,
“Non-palpable breast-lesions: Recommendation for biopsy
on suspicion of carcinoma at mammography,” Radiol.
Vol.167, no. 2, pp353-358, 1995
[5] J.G. Elmore, M.D. Barton, V.M. Moceri, S. Polk, P.J. Arena,
and S.W. Fletcher, “Ten-year risk of false positive
screening mammograms and clinical breast
examinations,” New Eng. J. Med., vol. 338, no. 16, pp1089-
1096, 1998
[6] Committee on Technologies for the Early Detection of
Breast Cancer, Mammography and Beyond: Developing
Technologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer,
S.J. Nass, I.C. Henderson, and J.C. Lashof, Eds. National
Cancer Policy Board, Institute of Medicine, and
Commission on Life Studies, National Research Council,
2001
[7] ACR Standard for the Performance of Breast Ultrasound
Examinations, 2000-2001 ACR Standards Reston, Va:
American College of Radiology 389-392
[8] National Comprehensive Cancer Network Practice
Guidelines: screening for and evaluation of suspicious breast
lesions. NCCN Proceedings. Oncology. 1998; 12(11A): 89-
138
[9] D. Smith, M. Leach, A. Sambell, “An Indirect Holographic
Method for Determining Antenna Radiation Patterns and
Imaging Antenna Fields”, IEEE Symposium 2002, June
16-21, San Antonio, Texas, USA
[10] M. Elsdon, D. Smith, M. Leach. S. Foti, ‘Microwave
Imaging of Concealed Metal Objects using a
Novel Indirect Holographic Method’, Microwave and
Optical Technology Letters, Issue 47:6, December 2005,
pp536-537
[11] J. Brown and E. V. Jull, “The Prediction of Aerial
Radiation Patterns from Near Field Measurements”,
Proc. Inst. Elect. Engs., vol. 108B, pp635 – 644,
Nov. 1961
[12] D. T. Paris, W. M. Leach Jr. and E. B. Joy, “Basic Theory
of Probe- Compensated Near-Field
Measurements”, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol.
AP-26, pp379 – 389, May 1978
[13] A. D. Yaghiian, “An Overview of Near Field Antenna
Measurements”, IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propagat., vol. AP-34, No.1, pp. 30-45, Jan. 1986
[14] Y. Rahmat-Samii, L. I. Williams, R. G. Yaccarino,
“The UCLA Bi-Polar Planar Near-Field Antenna
Measurement and Diagnostic Range”, IEEE Propagat.
Mag., vol. 37, No. 6, pp16 – 35, Dec. 1995
[15] A. P. Anderson, “Microwave Holography”, Proc. IEE, vol.
124, No. 11R, pp946 – 962, 1977
[16] J. J. Wang, “An Examination of the Theory and Practices of
Planar Near-Field Measurement”, IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propagat., vol. 36, No. 6, pp746 – 753, June 1988
[17] Zhong Qing Zhang, Qing Huo Liu, Chunjiang Xiao, E.
Ward, G. Ybarra, W.T. Joines, “Microwave breast imaging:
3-D forward scattering simulation,” IEEE Transactions
Biomedical Engineering, vol. 50, issue 10, Oct. 2003,
pp1180-1189
[18] D. W. Winters, S. J. Bond B. D. Van Veen and
S. C. Hagness, “Estimation of the Frequency-Dependent
Average Dielectric Properties of Breast Tissue Using a
Time-Domain Inverse Scattering Technique”, IEEE
Transactions Antennas and Propagation, vol. 54, no. 11,
Nov. 2006, pp. 3517-3528.


Breast cancer detection using microwave holography

Northumbria University Research Portal

Breast Cancer Detection using MicrowaveHolographyDr. M. Elsdon, Mr M.J. Fdo, Dr. M. Leach, Prof. S.J. Foti, Prof. D. SmithMicrowave Imaging Research Group, CEIS,Northumbria University,NE1 8ST, UKe-mail: michael.elsdon@northumbria.ac.ukAbstract— Breast cancer is one of the most commonforms of cancer in women. X-ray mammography is themost widely used technique for early detection but haslimitations. In this paper, an alternative approach forbreast cancer detection using microwave imaging ispresented. This is based upon microwave indirectholographic approach, central to which is the use of asynthetic reference beam. This approach has benefits interms of simplicity and expense. Experimental resultsusing a simple breast phantom are included todemonstrate the potential of this approach.Keywords: Holography; breast cancer detection; microwaveholography; microwave imaging; image reconstruction;holographic recording.I. INTRODUCTIONBreast cancer affects many women, and earlydetection and timely medical intervention are the keyto long term survival and life quality for patients [1].The current gold-standard for medical imaging ofbreast cancer is the X-ray [2]. However, this screeningtool has a number of disadvantages. These includemissing approximately 10-30% of breast cancers [3],whilst concerns have also been raised about the highnumber of false positives [4,5]. A further disadvantageof X-ray mammography is the difficulty in imagingwomen with dense breasts [6]. Moreover, the ionizingproperties of X-rays restricts the frequency ofscreening.These limitations motivate the search for newmethods of breast tumour detection. Other establisheddiagnostic techniques such as breast ultrasound and MRI,which do not expose the patient to ionizing radiation arealso used for breast cancer detection. Breast ultrasound isconsidered to be the appropriate modality for the initialevaluation of a palpable breast mass in pregnant womenand for evaluation of a palpable breast mass in a womenunder the age of 30 [7,8]. Breast ultrasound also has somelimitations, which include relatively higher costcompared with mammography; operator-skilldependency; and the time required to carry out the study.Perhaps the biggest disadvantage of this modality is itshigher false negative rate, when compared tomammography, for general screening. MRI has beenshown to be effective in screening women with increasedrisk of breast cancer. Advantages of MRI includedetection of small cancers; use of non-ionizing radiation;and its effectiveness in imaging dense breast tissue that ischaracteristic of pre-menopausal women. Disadvantagesof this technique include restricted availability and lowspecificity. Moreover, this technique is much moreexpensive than X-ray mammography.Microwave imaging of breast tumours offersan alternative method of breast cancer detection andhas been the subject of much study. X-rays detectstructural changes in tissue cells whilst microwavesdetect changes in dielectric properties, which occurbefore structural changes. Hence microwave imagingcan potentially offer an earlier detection of cancer.Several microwave imaging techniques have beensuggested, including microwave tomography andconfocal imaging. The majority of these approachesare based on the use of pulsed techniques where thelocation of the tumour is obtained by processing datain the time domain.It has recently been reported that an indirectholographic technique can be used to reconstruct thecomplex aperture field of an antenna from a singlescalar intensity pattern [9]. This work has beenextended to provide detection of metallic objects foruse in security screening [10]. In this paper, it isshown how this technique can be extended for earlystage breast cancer detection. Experimental resultsusing a simulated phantom are included todemonstrate the potential of this approach.II. DIRECT HOLOGRAPHYThe use of Direct Holography for thedetermination of antenna radiation patterns and imagingof aperture fields has received much attention [11-16].The same technique can also be adapted to reconstruct 3Dimages of objects from complex near field measurements.For the imaging of objects, a complex field pattern,E(x,y), is recorded over a 2D aperture located at adistance, z = d, from the object. Performing a fouriertransform on this field converts the data to a plane wavespectrum, A(kx,ky).   dydxeyxEyxEFkkA ykxkjyx yx .),(21),(),( )..((1)Assuming that the original coordinate system islocated at the plane of the scanning aperture, z = 0, thecomplex scattered field at the plane, E (x,y, z = d), can beobtained using a back-propagation approach [28].    yxykxkjdjkyx dkdkeekkAdzyxE yxz ..,21,, )..(.(2)where 2220 yxz kkkk  (3)III. INDIRECT MICROWAVEHOLOGRAPHYIndirect holographic imaging consists of twostages: the recording of a sampled intensity patternand image reconstruction. The off-axis hologram wasfirst introduced by Leith and Upatnieks [10] for therecording of optical wavefronts. In the recordingstage, an intensity pattern is formed from theinterference pattern between the scattered wavefrontand a coherent plane wave, introduced at an offsetangle to the recording plane. This is illustrated infigure 1.Figure 1: Off-axis HologramThe adoption of this technique at microwavefrequencies has proved difficult due to the practicalproblems associated with providing an offsetreference wave. A technique to overcome thisproblem has recently been described [9].The basis of this technique is to replace theoffset radiated reference wave by an electronicallysynthesized reference wave. This is derived bytapping off a fraction of the signal used toilluminate the object using a directional coupler. Thephase of this signal is controlled by varying thephase shifters under computer control. To form anintensity pattern, the reference signal is combinedwith the scattered signal of the object. Andiagrammatic representation of this arrangement isshown in figure 2.The measurements are taken over a regularrectangular grid spaced at /2, with a linear phaseincrement introduced by the variable phase shifters as thecirculator moves in the x direction.Figure 2: Experimental Arrangement for Intensity Pattern FormationThe form of the resultant intensity pattern isgiven by:2),(),(),( yxRyxEyxI ),(),(),(),(),(),( 22 yxRyxEyxRyxEyxRyxE   (4)where E(x,y) represents the complex scattered field overthe x,y plane, R(x,y) represents the complex field of thereference wave over the (x,y) plane and * denotedcomplex conjugate. If the reference wave is introducedalong the x axis, it takes the form:xjkxeEyxR  0),( (5)xjk xeEyxR   0),( (6)The first stage in the process to reconstruct ahigh quality image of the original object is to take theFourier Transform of this intensity pattern (4) to obtain apattern in the spatial frequency domain (7).     22 ),(),(),( yxRFyxEFyxIF        ),(),(),(),( yxRFyxEFyxRFyxEF  (7)Provided that the spatial frequency of the scattered objectis band limited and a sufficient phase shift can be appliedto the reference wave, the four components in (7) can beseparated into three regions. This is showndiagrammatically in figure 3.kxkyFigure 3: Spectral representation of an off-axis hologramThe first two terms of equation (7) correspond tothe auto-correlation of the scattered object wave and thereference wave respectively. These components appear inthe centre of the spectrum as a result of their DC content.The third and fourth terms of equation (7) relate to theconvolution of the reference wave with the scatteredwave and it’s complex conjugate. These are offset fromthe origin by an amount related to the angle of thereference wave and contain sufficient information toreconstruct the image. The use of a synthesised offsetreference plane wave allows the third and fourth terms ofequation (7) to be separated in the spatial frequencydomain. The next stage in the reconstruction process is tofilter off the unwanted terms and centralise the requiredterm to give the plane wave spectrum of the originalobject:     yxEFEyxF ,.,' 0 (8)Taking the inverse fourier transform of (8) givesthe original scattered field of the object at themeasurement plane, z = 0:     yxEEyxIFG ,.,' 0 (9)A focused image of the object at differentdistances can be obtained by back-propagating the PWSof the object (8) through the desired distance, z = d [17].This particular step follows the same approach to thatdescribed for direct holography (eqn. 2).IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSTo demonstrate the ability of this technique toproduce good quality images, a modified breastphantom has been adopted. Winters et al [18] recentlyreported that the dielectric properties of skin, normalbreast fat and tumour have dielectric constants ofapproximately 10, 30 and 50 respectively. To simulatethis, a breast phantom with a similar ratio of skin: fat:tumour has been adopted. In this experiment, themeasurements are performed in free-space, with a blockof wood, and sheet of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This isshown in figure 4. The dielectric properties of materialswere confirmed by measurements taken using a AgilentE8364B PNA Network Analyser and Agilent 85070Edielectric probe kit.Results have been taken at a distance of5cm from the simulated tumour at a frequency of10GHz over a scanning aperture 72cm x 72cm, witha sample size of 1cm. The reconstructed image isshown in Figure 5 together with an outline of theoriginal object for comparison. It can be seen thatgood correlation has been achieved between theoriginal object and the reconstructed image.Figure 4. Simulated breast phantom(a)(b)Figure. 5: Reconstructed (a) Magnitude and (b) phase imagesWOOD(Tumour)PVCSHEET(Skin)8cm7cm23cm8cm29cm21cm22cm72cm72cm17cm26cmWOOD(Tumour)PVCSHEET(Skin)8cm7cm23cm8cm29cm21cm22cm72cm72cm17cm26cmV. CONCLUSIONA technique for the detection of breast cancerbased on a novel indirect holographic technique hasbeen demonstrated. Practical results have shown thatthis technique is successful for determining both thelocation and shape of the simulated tumor. The useof this approach offers considerable benefits in termsof simplicity and expense when compared with othermicrowave imaging techniques.REFERENCES[1] ‘Cancer facts and figures 2003’, American CancerSociety, www.cancer.org[2] M Brown, et al.: ‘Screening mammography in communitypractice’, Amer. J. Roentgen., 1995, 165, pp1373-1377[3] Committee on Technologies for the Early Detection ofBreast Cancer, Mammography and Beyond: DevelopingTechnologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer,S.J. Nass, I.C. Henderson, and J.C. Lashof, Eds. NationalCancer Policy Board, Institute of Medicine, andCommission on Life Studies, National Research Council,2001.[4]. F. M. Hall, J.M. Storella, D.Z. Silverstone, and G. Wyshak,“Non-palpable breast-lesions: Recommendation for biopsyon suspicion of carcinoma at mammography,” Radiol.Vol.167, no. 2, pp353-358, 1995[5] J.G. Elmore, M.D. Barton, V.M. Moceri, S. Polk, P.J. Arena,and S.W. Fletcher, “Ten-year risk of false positivescreening mammograms and clinical breastexaminations,” New Eng. J. Med., vol. 338, no. 16, pp1089-1096, 1998[6] Committee on Technologies for the Early Detection ofBreast Cancer, Mammography and Beyond: DevelopingTechnologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer,S.J. Nass, I.C. Henderson, and J.C. Lashof, Eds. 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An Examination of the Theory and Practices of Planar Near-Field Measurement”,

An Indirect Holographic Method for Determining Antenna Radiation Patterns and Imaging Antenna Fields”,

An Overview of Near Field Antenna Measurements”,

Basic Theory of Probe-

Cancer facts and figures

Cancer Network Practice Guidelines: screening for and evaluation of suspicious breast lesions.

Committee on Technologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer, Mammography and Beyond: Developing Technologies for the Early Detection of Breast Cancer,

Estimation of the Frequency-Dependent Average Dielectric Properties of Breast Tissue Using a Time-Domain Inverse Scattering Technique”,

et al.: ‘Screening mammography in community practice’,

for the Performance of Breast Ultrasound Examinations,

Microwave breast imaging: 3-D forward scattering simulation,”

Microwave Holography”,

Microwave Imaging of Concealed Metal Objects using a Novel Indirect Holographic Method’,

Non-palpable breast-lesions: Recommendation for biopsy on suspicion of carcinoma at mammography,” Radiol.

Ten-year risk of false positive screening mammograms and clinical breast examinations,”

The Prediction of Aerial Radiation Patterns from Near Field Measurements”,

The UCLA Bi-Polar Planar Near-Field Antenna Measurement and Diagnostic Range”,

http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/2548/1/Elsdon%2C%20Fdo%2C%20Leach%2C%20Foti%2C%20Smith%20-%20Breast%20cancer%20detection%20using%20microwave%20holography.conference%20paper.pdf

Breast cancer detection using microwave holography

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