The modern day design of vehicles, especially in the racing industry involve a great deal of air flow study. This study shows that drag force adversely affects the forward motion of the car and that there is a difference in the pressure between the air flowing above and below the car. This produces forces along the vertical axis. Aerodynamic forces acting on a car greatly reduces its efficiency. If the car is redesigned to optimise these forces it could produce better results. This paper discusses various techniques that have been used to redesign and optimise the aerodynamics of a model radio control race car

Chainani, A.

Perera, Noel

English

Northumbria Research Link

Abstract— The modern day design of vehicles, especially in theracing industry involve a great deal of air flow study. This studyshows that drag force adversely affects the forward motion ofthe car and that there is a difference in the pressure between theair flowing above and below the car. This produces forces alongthe vertical axis. Aerodynamic forces acting on a car greatlyreduces its efficiency. If the car is redesigned to optimise theseforces it could produce better results. This paper discussesvarious techniques that have been used to redesign and optimisethe aerodynamics of a model radio control race car.Index Terms— Computational fluid dynamics, down force,drag force, (CFD), vehicle aerodynamicsI. INTRODUCTIONUntil the mid 1960’s [1] the understanding of vehicleaerodynamics was very limited and the shape of the car wasleft in the hands of the designer. The cars were “boxy” andhad large frontal areas. The growth of computing technologyin the 1970’s and 80’s [1] allowed car manufacturers toanalyse air flow around cars and recognize the importance ofaerodynamics in vehicle development. This progress allowedfurther research to be focused on reducing the drag coefficient.It has been shown [2] that 40% of the drag coefficient isdependant on the external shape of the car and is concentratedat the rear of the geometry.It has been established [3] that a systematic aerodynamicstudy of the various parts of a vehicle can help improve itsaerodynamics. Also, computational techniques of estimatingairflow aided with comprehensive experimentation canproduce sustainable results. Researchers [2] have alsoinvestigated the effects of utilising various geometries for thecomponents of the airfoils behind cars. Others [4] haveinvestigated the wing/body interaction in generic shapes ofclosed-wheel race-cars. There have also been investigationsin the patterns of airflow in case of convertible cars [5].However, there still is great potential for research in thisapplication of fluid dynamics.A moving car experiences an increase in aerodynamicforces with an increase in its velocity. Just like an airfoil, thebody of a car experiences drag and lift forces, the only majordifference being that due to the shape of a car it experiences anegative lift or down force [6]. The down force generated byits shape gives the car the ability to go around non-bankedcurves with higher speeds. Hence an aerodynamicallysuperior car design generates a low drag force but a highdown force. An aerodynamically superior car design canreduce fuel consumption and increase its efficiency. Thisproduces a more environmentally friendly car. However dueto the competitiveness of the motor sport industry, there islimited current research findings pertaining to theaerodynamic features of race cars.The subject of this paper is to investigate and analyse theairflow around a radio control model race car using acommercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) softwarepackage.Fig.1 Airflow over the model race carII. NOMENCLATUREVin = Inlet VelocityPout = Outlet Pressureρ = DensityFd = Drag ForceFl = Lift ForceA = AreaCd = Drag CoefficientCl = Lift CoefficientCs = Lift Coefficientε = EpsilonIII. THEORYThe basis of aerodynamics is the Bernoulli’s equationwhich states that at any point in a streamlined flow if the localair stream is lower than that of the undisturbed flow, the loss iscompensated by an increase in pressure [1].Chainani. A, Perera. NSchool of Computing, Engineering and Information Sciences, Northumbria UniversityEmail: amit.chainani@unn.ac.uk, noel.perera@unn.ac.ukCFD investigation of airflow on a model radiocontrol race carAs the body of the model car is not streamlined, it causeslocal disturbances in the air flowing around the body. Thefluctuation in the local air stream velocity produces aspectrum of pressure on the various faces of the vehicle. Thispressure creates a rise in forces acting along the three axis [1].The drag force is given by:Fd = (ρ V2 A Cd) / 2The relative velocity of the air mass to the car is the same asthe relative velocity of the ground to the car. Hence it isassumed that the velocity of the air mass is equal to therelative velocity of the ground to the car.In this investigation the Cd value is assumed to be a constantsince the general airflow is turbulent.Similarly, for the Lift force is given byFl = (ρ V2 A Cl) / 2And Force caused by cross winds, side force is given byFs = (ρ V2 A Cs) / 2As shown [6] the flow of air in the boundary layer of a carhas been found to be turbulent for the most part. Theboundary layer causes particle stagnation around someregions along the body of the car. This effect is known as“skin friction” [6]. Skin friction is attributed to the viscousforces which significantly alter the flow of air around the car.Hence it is essential to consider viscous forces and model theviscosity of air while analysing the air flow around the car.Therefore to model viscosity, the Navier-Stokes equationswere incorporated into the CFD analysis.IV. METHODOLOGYA velocity test was carried out in the laboratory to obtainthe average velocity of the model car. The velocity testensured that the boundary condition (Vin) used in the CFDmodel replicated the actual velocity of the model race car.A commercial CFD software package was used to analysethe airflow around the model race car. The body of the car wasscanned using a 3-D scanner to with a precision of 1 mm i.e.0.233%. Due to scanner limitations, the rear spoiler of the carwas removed during the scanning process. The rear spoilerwas generated using Solid Works a 3D mechanical CADsoftware package. The scanned data was imported to SolidWorks and checked for errors and self intersectinggeometries. The spoiler was then added to the scanned modeland the entire geometry was exported to the CFD package.The CFD model did not incorporate the airflow around thewheels and assumed the body of the car to be a shell withoutwheel arches. This model also assumes no side, up or downwinds.A redesigned car body was used to further analyse andcompare the aerodynamic effects of a change in the bodyshape. This redesigned car body has the same vitaldimensions i.e. length, width, average height, groundclearance and volume of the model car.V. THE EXPERIMENTThe model car was tested for the average velocity which wasobtained over 15 straight runs for a distance of 9.144 m (30ft.). The velocity test was carried out in a laboratory undercontrolled conditions. Due to the experiment being carriedout indoors the cross wind effect was omitted. The table ofresults is shown in Table 1.Serial Time Distance VelocityNo. (s) (m) (m/s)1 2.72 9.144 3.362 2.84 9.144 3.223 3.34 9.144 2.744 2.54 9.144 3.605 1.72 9.144 5.326 2.47 9.144 3.707 2.06 9.144 4.448 2.06 9.144 4.449 2.13 9.144 4.2910 2.35 9.144 3.8911 2.22 9.144 4.1212 2.06 9.144 4.4413 2.29 9.144 3.9914 1.78 9.144 5.1415 1.75 9.144 5.23Table 1. Results of the velocity testVI. CFD ANALYSISThe results obtained from the experiment were used asboundary conditions for the CFD model. A symmetry sectionof the model race car as shown below in Fig. 2 was initialisedusing the boundary conditions Vin and Po.Fig. 3 Contours of static pressure for the model race car.As demonstrated in Fig.3 the front end of the carexperiences significantly higher pressures than the rest of thecar. This can be attributed to its poor curvature and highprojected area. It is also seen that the pressure head on the rearairfoil of the car does not generate the down force that isrequired from an airfoil. Therefore the inclusion of the rearairfoil apart from its aesthetic value has no significantaerodynamic contribution to the model race car. It is alsoshown that there is a higher pressure concentration on thefront end of the car that contributes to an increase in theoverall Cd value.Stylish and protruding features such as overhanging curvesalong the side of the car as indicated in Fig. 4 produceunwanted regions of high pressure.Fig. 4 Static pressure contour of the overhanging curveThe Fig.5 demonstrates that the velocity of the air reducesas it reaches the front of the car. This velocity then increasesdue to a positive slope above the front end of the car. Theairflow velocity over the roof reduces significantly andremains constant as it flows towards the rear of the car. Thisairflow trend is attributed in part to the rear airfoil which doesnot trip the flow or decrease its velocity.Fig. 5. Velocity vectors of the airflow over the model race car.The CFD analysis on the model race car has shown that therear airfoil, overhanging arches and frontal shape of thismodel race car has contributed to its ineffective aerodynamicperformance.The contours of static pressure shown in Fig. 6 demonstratethat the redesigned model race car has a reduced pressurehead in the front end. This pressure head greatly contributes tothe down force generated in the front half of the car thereforeprovides for stability. As the air flows beyond the front grilleof the car, the static pressure reduces with an increase in thegradient of the bonnet. This graduated change in the pressurecontours reduces the concentrated pressure heads along theupper surface of the redesigned model race car. The reshapedFig. 6 Contours of static pressure for the redesigned modelrace carfront grille on the redesigned model race car acts like a flowtripper [7] delaying the formation of a potentially stagnantboundary layer. This is demonstrated when comparing Fig. 5with Fig. 7. This reduces the viscous forces caused by theboundary layer of the car therefore contributing to a reductionin the overall Cd value.Fig. 7 Velocity vectors of the airflow over the redesignedmodel race carAnother essential change made along the side of the car isthe elimination of protruded side curves that acted as surfacesof high static pressure as shown in Fig.4. The redesigned carhas side surfaces that are streamlined i.e. shaped like a fishwhich allow for a smoother transition of air.OverhangingcurveThe reshaping of the rear end of the car has been greatlyinfluenced by a designing technique called “bob-tailing” [6].As shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 7 the wake i.e. region of airrecirculation is at the back of the car. In this region bothmodels experience high turbulence and reverse velocities.However “bob tailing” the back reduces the boundary layerstagnation and greatly changes the flow pattern behind thecar. This causes a reduction in the wake region which shouldcontribute to a decrease in the drag force.VII. CONCLUSIONThis investigation has demonstrated that there is asignificant change in the coefficients of lift and drag of themodel race car when a more streamlined body design isadopted. The results obtained show a 40.49% reduction indrag coefficient with a loss of 24% in the down force. Thisfurther verifies previous research [9-11] indicating that abody having an “inverted tear-drop” shape generates a lowerdrag force than one with a “conventional” shape. The findingsof this investigation also confirm previous research [12-15]detailing that bob-tailing’ the rear end of the car reduces therecirculation region behind the car. This further reduces thedrag force acting on the car. Furthermore it was alsodetermined that varying the angle of the front grille has anaffect on the down force acting on the car.VIII. FURTHER WORKSuggestions for future work are: Verifying the computational results by building and testingboth models in a wind tunnel. Building a practical model of the redesigned race car andcarrying out experimental tests on it to verify the obtainedcomputational results. Gathering data on the actual environmental conditions thatthe car is exposed to and using that data in the CFD analysis.REFERENCES[1] Wolf-Heinrich Hucho, “Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles”. Cambridge:Butterworths, 1987, ch. 1-4.[2] W. Kieffer, S. Moujaes, N. Armbya “CFD study of sectioncharacteristics of Formula Mazda race car wings” March 2005[3] F. Muyl, Laurent Dumas, Vincent Herbert “Hybrid method foraerodynamic shape optimization”, June 2003[4] G.de Vahl Davis and C. Fletcher, “Computational Fluid Dynamics”.Amsterdam : Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1988, pp 315 – 328[5] Hiroshi China, Masahiro Yoshida, Morihiro Takada, KunioNakagawa, “Air flow control around the cabin of a convertible car”July 1994[6] AJ Scibor - Rylski, “Road Vehicle Aeerodynamics” London: PentechRessl, 1975, ch 1-7.[7] Masaru Koike, Tsunehisa Nagayoshi, Naoki hamamoto,“Research onAerodynamic Drag Reduction by Vortex Generators”[8] Appupillai Baskaran and Ahmed Kashef, “Investigation of air flowaround buildings using computational fluid dynamics techniques”,1996[9] Heller, A. “Der neue Kraftwagen von Dr. Ing Rumpler”, 1921[10] Eppinger, A. “Tropfenwagen- Anwendung der FlugzuegAerodynamik”, 1921[11] Rumpler, E. “Das Auto im Luftstrom”, 1924[12] Stapleford, W. R. and Carr. “Aerodynamic characteristics of exposedrotating wheels” 1970[13] W. Kieffer, S. Moujaes, N. Armbya “CFD study of sectioncharacteristics of Formula Mazda race car wings” March 2005[14] Morelli, A. “ Aerodynamic actions on an automobile” 1969[15] Loghton, C.J. “Rotating wheel experiment”, Unpublished, CityUniversity, London, 1969

CFD investigation of airflow on a model radio control race car

Northumbria Research Link
Citation: Chainani, A. and Perera, Noel (2008) CFD investigation of airflow on a model radio control  
race car. In: WCE 2008, 2-4 July 2008, London. 
URL: 
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Abstract— The modern day design of vehicles, especially in the
racing industry involve a great deal of air flow study. This study
shows that drag force adversely affects the forward motion of
the car and that there is a difference in the pressure between the
air flowing above and below the car. This produces forces along
the vertical axis. Aerodynamic forces acting on a car greatly
reduces its efficiency. If the car is redesigned to optimise these
forces it could produce better results. This paper discusses
various techniques that have been used to redesign and optimise
the aerodynamics of a model radio control race car.
Index Terms— Computational fluid dynamics, down force,
drag force, (CFD), vehicle aerodynamics
I. INTRODUCTION
Until the mid 1960’s [1] the understanding of vehicle
aerodynamics was very limited and the shape of the car was
left in the hands of the designer. The cars were “boxy” and
had large frontal areas. The growth of computing technology
in the 1970’s and 80’s [1] allowed car manufacturers to
analyse air flow around cars and recognize the importance of
aerodynamics in vehicle development. This progress allowed
further research to be focused on reducing the drag coefficient.
It has been shown [2] that 40% of the drag coefficient is
dependant on the external shape of the car and is concentrated
at the rear of the geometry.
It has been established [3] that a systematic aerodynamic
study of the various parts of a vehicle can help improve its
aerodynamics. Also, computational techniques of estimating
airflow aided with comprehensive experimentation can
produce sustainable results. Researchers [2] have also
investigated the effects of utilising various geometries for the
components of the airfoils behind cars. Others [4] have
investigated the wing/body interaction in generic shapes of
closed-wheel race-cars. There have also been investigations
in the patterns of airflow in case of convertible cars [5].
However, there still is great potential for research in this
application of fluid dynamics.
A moving car experiences an increase in aerodynamic
forces with an increase in its velocity. Just like an airfoil, the
body of a car experiences drag and lift forces, the only major
difference being that due to the shape of a car it experiences a
negative lift or down force [6]. The down force generated by
its shape gives the car the ability to go around non-banked
curves with higher speeds. Hence an aerodynamically
superior car design generates a low drag force but a high
down force. An aerodynamically superior car design can
reduce fuel consumption and increase its efficiency. This
produces a more environmentally friendly car. However due
to the competitiveness of the motor sport industry, there is
limited current research findings pertaining to the
aerodynamic features of race cars.
The subject of this paper is to investigate and analyse the
airflow around a radio control model race car using a
commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software
package.
Fig.1 Airflow over the model race car
II. NOMENCLATURE
Vin = Inlet Velocity
Pout = Outlet Pressure
ρ = Density
Fd = Drag Force
Fl = Lift Force
A = Area
Cd = Drag Coefficient
Cl = Lift Coefficient
Cs = Lift Coefficient
ε = Epsilon
III. THEORY
The basis of aerodynamics is the Bernoulli’s equation
which states that at any point in a streamlined flow if the local
air stream is lower than that of the undisturbed flow, the loss is
compensated by an increase in pressure [1].
Chainani. A, Perera. N
School of Computing, Engineering and Information Sciences, Northumbria University
Email: amit.chainani@unn.ac.uk, noel.perera@unn.ac.uk
CFD investigation of airflow on a model radio
control race car
As the body of the model car is not streamlined, it causes
local disturbances in the air flowing around the body. The
fluctuation in the local air stream velocity produces a
spectrum of pressure on the various faces of the vehicle. This
pressure creates a rise in forces acting along the three axis [1].
The drag force is given by:
Fd = (ρ V
2 A Cd) / 2
The relative velocity of the air mass to the car is the same as
the relative velocity of the ground to the car. Hence it is
assumed that the velocity of the air mass is equal to the
relative velocity of the ground to the car.
In this investigation the Cd value is assumed to be a constant
since the general airflow is turbulent.
Similarly, for the Lift force is given by
Fl = (ρ V
2 A Cl) / 2
And Force caused by cross winds, side force is given by
Fs = (ρ V
2 A Cs) / 2
As shown [6] the flow of air in the boundary layer of a car
has been found to be turbulent for the most part. The
boundary layer causes particle stagnation around some
regions along the body of the car. This effect is known as
“skin friction” [6]. Skin friction is attributed to the viscous
forces which significantly alter the flow of air around the car.
Hence it is essential to consider viscous forces and model the
viscosity of air while analysing the air flow around the car.
Therefore to model viscosity, the Navier-Stokes equations
were incorporated into the CFD analysis.
IV. METHODOLOGY
A velocity test was carried out in the laboratory to obtain
the average velocity of the model car. The velocity test
ensured that the boundary condition (Vin) used in the CFD
model replicated the actual velocity of the model race car.
A commercial CFD software package was used to analyse
the airflow around the model race car. The body of the car was
scanned using a 3-D scanner to with a precision of 1 mm i.e.
0.233%. Due to scanner limitations, the rear spoiler of the car
was removed during the scanning process. The rear spoiler
was generated using Solid Works a 3D mechanical CAD
software package. The scanned data was imported to Solid
Works and checked for errors and self intersecting
geometries. The spoiler was then added to the scanned model
and the entire geometry was exported to the CFD package.
The CFD model did not incorporate the airflow around the
wheels and assumed the body of the car to be a shell without
wheel arches. This model also assumes no side, up or down
winds.
A redesigned car body was used to further analyse and
compare the aerodynamic effects of a change in the body
shape. This redesigned car body has the same vital
dimensions i.e. length, width, average height, ground
clearance and volume of the model car.
V. THE EXPERIMENT
The model car was tested for the average velocity which was
obtained over 15 straight runs for a distance of 9.144 m (30
ft.). The velocity test was carried out in a laboratory under
controlled conditions. Due to the experiment being carried
out indoors the cross wind effect was omitted. The table of
results is shown in Table 1.
Serial Time Distance Velocity
No. (s) (m) (m/s)
1 2.72 9.144 3.36
2 2.84 9.144 3.22
3 3.34 9.144 2.74
4 2.54 9.144 3.60
5 1.72 9.144 5.32
6 2.47 9.144 3.70
7 2.06 9.144 4.44
8 2.06 9.144 4.44
9 2.13 9.144 4.29
10 2.35 9.144 3.89
11 2.22 9.144 4.12
12 2.06 9.144 4.44
13 2.29 9.144 3.99
14 1.78 9.144 5.14
15 1.75 9.144 5.23
Table 1. Results of the velocity test
VI. CFD ANALYSIS
The results obtained from the experiment were used as
boundary conditions for the CFD model. A symmetry section
of the model race car as shown below in Fig. 2 was initialised
using the boundary conditions Vin and Po.
Fig. 3 Contours of static pressure for the model race car.
As demonstrated in Fig.3 the front end of the car
experiences significantly higher pressures than the rest of the
car. This can be attributed to its poor curvature and high
projected area. It is also seen that the pressure head on the rear
airfoil of the car does not generate the down force that is
required from an airfoil. Therefore the inclusion of the rear
airfoil apart from its aesthetic value has no significant
aerodynamic contribution to the model race car. It is also
shown that there is a higher pressure concentration on the
front end of the car that contributes to an increase in the
overall Cd value.
Stylish and protruding features such as overhanging curves
along the side of the car as indicated in Fig. 4 produce
unwanted regions of high pressure.
Fig. 4 Static pressure contour of the overhanging curve
The Fig.5 demonstrates that the velocity of the air reduces
as it reaches the front of the car. This velocity then increases
due to a positive slope above the front end of the car. The
airflow velocity over the roof reduces significantly and
remains constant as it flows towards the rear of the car. This
airflow trend is attributed in part to the rear airfoil which does
not trip the flow or decrease its velocity.
Fig. 5. Velocity vectors of the airflow over the model race car.
The CFD analysis on the model race car has shown that the
rear airfoil, overhanging arches and frontal shape of this
model race car has contributed to its ineffective aerodynamic
performance.
The contours of static pressure shown in Fig. 6 demonstrate
that the redesigned model race car has a reduced pressure
head in the front end. This pressure head greatly contributes to
the down force generated in the front half of the car therefore
provides for stability. As the air flows beyond the front grille
of the car, the static pressure reduces with an increase in the
gradient of the bonnet. This graduated change in the pressure
contours reduces the concentrated pressure heads along the
upper surface of the redesigned model race car. The reshaped
Fig. 6 Contours of static pressure for the redesigned model
race car
front grille on the redesigned model race car acts like a flow
tripper [7] delaying the formation of a potentially stagnant
boundary layer. This is demonstrated when comparing Fig. 5
with Fig. 7. This reduces the viscous forces caused by the
boundary layer of the car therefore contributing to a reduction
in the overall Cd value.
Fig. 7 Velocity vectors of the airflow over the redesigned
model race car
Another essential change made along the side of the car is
the elimination of protruded side curves that acted as surfaces
of high static pressure as shown in Fig.4. The redesigned car
has side surfaces that are streamlined i.e. shaped like a fish
which allow for a smoother transition of air.
Overhanging
curve
The reshaping of the rear end of the car has been greatly
influenced by a designing technique called “bob-tailing” [6].
As shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 7 the wake i.e. region of air
recirculation is at the back of the car. In this region both
models experience high turbulence and reverse velocities.
However “bob tailing” the back reduces the boundary layer
stagnation and greatly changes the flow pattern behind the
car. This causes a reduction in the wake region which should
contribute to a decrease in the drag force.
VII. CONCLUSION
This investigation has demonstrated that there is a
significant change in the coefficients of lift and drag of the
model race car when a more streamlined body design is
adopted. The results obtained show a 40.49% reduction in
drag coefficient with a loss of 24% in the down force. This
further verifies previous research [9-11] indicating that a
body having an “inverted tear-drop” shape generates a lower
drag force than one with a “conventional” shape. The findings
of this investigation also confirm previous research [12-15]
detailing that bob-tailing’ the rear end of the car reduces the
recirculation region behind the car. This further reduces the
drag force acting on the car. Furthermore it was also
determined that varying the angle of the front grille has an
affect on the down force acting on the car.
VIII. FURTHER WORK
Suggestions for future work are:
 Verifying the computational results by building and testing
both models in a wind tunnel.
 Building a practical model of the redesigned race car and
carrying out experimental tests on it to verify the obtained
computational results.
 Gathering data on the actual environmental conditions that
the car is exposed to and using that data in the CFD analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Wolf-Heinrich Hucho, “Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles”. Cambridge:
Butterworths, 1987, ch. 1-4.
[2] W. Kieffer, S. Moujaes, N. Armbya “CFD study of section
characteristics of Formula Mazda race car wings” March 2005
[3] F. Muyl, Laurent Dumas, Vincent Herbert “Hybrid method for
aerodynamic shape optimization”, June 2003
[4] G.de Vahl Davis and C. Fletcher, “Computational Fluid Dynamics”.
Amsterdam : Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1988, pp 315 – 328
[5] Hiroshi China, Masahiro Yoshida, Morihiro Takada, Kunio
Nakagawa, “Air flow control around the cabin of a convertible car”
July 1994
[6] AJ Scibor - Rylski, “Road Vehicle Aeerodynamics” London: Pentech
Ressl, 1975, ch 1-7.
[7] Masaru Koike, Tsunehisa Nagayoshi, Naoki hamamoto,“Research on
Aerodynamic Drag Reduction by Vortex Generators”
[8] Appupillai Baskaran and Ahmed Kashef, “Investigation of air flow
around buildings using computational fluid dynamics techniques”,
1996
[9] Heller, A. “Der neue Kraftwagen von Dr. Ing Rumpler”, 1921
[10] Eppinger, A. “Tropfenwagen- Anwendung der Flugzueg
Aerodynamik”, 1921
[11] Rumpler, E. “Das Auto im Luftstrom”, 1924
[12] Stapleford, W. R. and Carr. “Aerodynamic characteristics of exposed
rotating wheels” 1970
[13] W. Kieffer, S. Moujaes, N. Armbya “CFD study of section
characteristics of Formula Mazda race car wings” March 2005
[14] Morelli, A. “ Aerodynamic actions on an automobile” 1969
[15] Loghton, C.J. “Rotating wheel experiment”, Unpublished, City
University, London, 1969


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CFD investigation of airflow on a model radio control race car

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