Genetic biodiversity is the variation among individuals within and between units of interbreeding individuals (populations) of a species. It includes inheritable and transmittable differences that occur between individuals and/or populations of a given species through reproductive interaction. There exists enormous variability among individuals and/or populations of a species for most living organisms, and most of this variation is inheritable. differences among individuals arise through mutation and via recombination of genes during meiosis. These differences are then transmitted to successive generations through sexual reproduction and maintained in the populations through processes such as natural selection and genetic drift. Unfortunately much of this variation is normally threatened and often in danger of extinction because most focus in conservation of natural resources is put at saving species or habitats than varieties or strains of a species

Mwanja, W

Ogutu-Ohwayo, R.

Aquatic Commons

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\ 
BIODIVERSITY OF
 
LAKE VICTORIA:
 
.. 
ITS CONSERVATION AND
 
SUSTAINABLE USE
 
[THE UGANDAN VERSION] 
Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. and Ndawula L.
 
National Agricultural Research Organisation,
 
Fisheries Resources Research Institute,
 
P. O. Box 343, Jinja, Uganda 
December 2000 
.' • ,.. 'J 
CHAPTER 13B
 
Characterization of Genetic Biodiversity of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, Tilapiines, 
Haplochromine flock and Ningu (Labeo victorianus) in the Victoria Lake Basin: an 
overview 
By Mwanja Wilson, Ogutu-Ohwayo, R, National Agricultural Research Organisation, 
Fisheries Research Institute, P.o. Box 343, Jinja (Uj 
Introduction 
Genetic biodiversity is the vaflatlOn among individuals within and between units of 
interbreeding individuals (populations) of a species. It includes inheritable and 
transmittable differences that occur between individuals andlor popuhitions of a given 
species through reproductive interaction. There exists enormous variability among 
individuals andlor populations of a species for most living organisms, and most of this 
variation is inheritable. Differences among individuals arise through mutation and via 
recombination of genes during meiosis. These differences are then transmitted to 
successive generations through sexual reproduction and maintained in the populations 
through processes such as natural selection and genetic drift. Unfortunately much of this 
variation is normally threatened and often in danger of extinction because most focus in 
conservation of natural resources is put at saving species or habitats than varieties or 
strains of a species. 
Evolutionary forces such as natural selection and genetic drift act on individual level 
rather than at species level. It is now increasingly understood and agreed upon by most 
natural scientists that conservation efforts should be targeted at protecting as much 
variation as possible at population level rather than only at maintenance or protection of a 
species because protection of individual variation (genetic biodiversity) ensures 
evolutionary continuity of the species. For survival of a species is measure of 
conservation efforts at the individual or population level. Maintenance of genetic 
biodiversity though is normally constrained by resources, and most times conservation 
efforts are started only after remnant populations of a species are noticed to be in danger 
rather than dealing with the status of individual populations. 
There is need to genetically identify and characterize all extant variation for all flora and 
fauna. This guards against loss of strains or variation without knowledge. It also boosts 
the genetic bank from which genetic improvements are sought and can be made for the 
economically important strains or species. The inventory of genetics biodiversity assists 
in protection of vital habitats that contain key strains. The inventory helps in allocation 
of resources to the protection of a species which may be geographically widely 
distributed. In case of mitigation efforts understanding of genetic relationship between 
populations is essential for protection of locally adapted variation or restoration of 
endangered taxa. 
Below are evaluations of preliminary studies of genetic biodiversity of key taxa in the 
Lake Victoria Region (L VR). These species or groups of species are singled out because 
of their economical and/or ecologi,cal roles in the system. The list includes the 
introduced Nile perch, exotic and native tilapiine species, the Ningu and the 
haplochromine flock. 
Nile perch (Lates niloticlIs) 
Although the introduction of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, to lake Victoria has received 
intense global attention, especially in relation to its impact upon endemic cichlid species 
and the yields from its fishery, fundamental information on its taxonomy and population 
genetics is lacking. Most importantly, the introduced fish originated from two lakes 
(Lakes Albert and Turkana) containing three Lates species, and it has never been entirely 
clear which of these became established in Lake Victoria, or indeed whether the Lake 
Victoria population is derived from hybridization between Lates species. In addition, 
genetic drift caused by the relatively small founder population (approx. 400), the initially 
slow population increase followed by a period of explosive population growth and 
selection pressures in the new environment may have resulted in substantial genetic 
changes. 
In this study, allozyme electrophoresis has been used to assess taxonomic affinities of 
Lake Victoria Lates to possible source populations. Results suggest strongly that the 
survivors of the introduced fish were indeed L. niloticus from Lake Albert. In contrast, 
none of the other species appears to have become established in Lake Victoria. 
Introduced populations in lakes Kyoga and Nabugabo were likely derived from Lake 
Albert L. niloticus as well. 
Our results indicate a loss of genetic variability both during and after the introductions of 
Nile perch to Lakes Victoria and Kyoga. In addition, introduced Nile perch from these 
two lakes were genetically differentiated, suggesting genetic drift following each of the 
introductions. The reduction in genetic variability and subsequent genetic differentiation 
, may affect the adaptability and thus the persistence .of the introduced population in the 
rapidly changing environment of Lake Victoria, and may, therefore have implications for 
the management of the fishery as well as for the conservation of endangered cichlids. 
Ningu (Labeo victorian liS) 
Ningu, Labeo victorianus, is an endemic cyprinid fish cherished as a delicacy by the 
peoples of the Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga basins. Ningu was heavily sought prior to 
the 1960s, but subsequently has become commercially extinct The population declined 
drastically in size, due to the combined effects of the introduction of modem nylon fiber 
nets, the practice of drift netting at the river mouths during upstream migration, and the 
introduction of competing non-indigenous fishes in the two basins and degradation of its 
habitat. It is now extant only as small, isolated populations of little commercial value. 
The genetic characterization of the remaining natural population of ningu was examined. 
The method of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPO) was used to identify 
molecular markers in order to characterize three of the remnant populations of ningu, and 
to compare these populations with samples from two allopatric congeners, L. horie and L. 
2 
coubie from Lake Albert. The ningu populations were found to be markedly 
differentiated by locality. Genetic differences between populations account for 64.4% of 
the total genetic variation within ningu. Comparisons of genetic variability between the 
three species shows that the ningu retains slightly more variation per population than is 
seen in the other forms. For each of the three species of Labeo, gene diversity within 
population measured by RAPDs was relatively low. Labeo populations had lower levels 
of genetic variation than was observed in samples from Lake Albert of the cyprinid 
Barbus bynii, and the characid species H baremose, or than had been previously 
observed in several tilapiine cichlids from the Lake Victoria basin. Natal stream fidelity 
would seem to play an important role in leading to genetic di fferences between local 
populations of the ningu, since it can lead to population isolation. Given the recent 
severe decline in population size, and the evidence for significant isolation and 
differentiation between populations, further studies are urgently needed to evaluate the 
genetic constitution of ningu populations and develop a plan to conserve genetic 
resources of the species to increase the potential for long term survival. 
Tilapiines (Oreochromis species) 
Four microsatellite marker loci were used to estimate genetic diversity and degree of 
genetic differentiation among populations within the species of the principal tilapiine 
genus, Oreochromis niloricus, of the Lake Victoria Region (LVR). The tilapiine fauna of 
the LVR includes a number of forms: two native species, Oreochromis esculentus and 0. 
variabilis, and several non-indigenous species. The Nile tilapia, 0. ni/oticus, which is an 
introduced species in LVR, is currently the most abundant tilapiine. Microsatellite 
analysis of Oreochromis populations showed clear differentiation among populations. 
The microsatellite technique revealed sufficient molecular variation to differentiate 
among populations and species. The Nile tilapia was the least differentiated arriong 
populations, while O. esculentus exhibited the highest level of population subdivision. 
Among Nile tilapia populations, the Nabugabo population was closest to the Lake 
Edward population while Napoleon Gulf, Lake Kyoga, and Namasagali (Victoria Nile) 
populations clustered with Lake Albert and George populations. All trees generated 
indicate 0. esculentlls as being closer to 0. leucostictus and 0. variabi/is, than to 0. 
niloticus, the supposed sister species. 
The Nile tilapia (Oreochomis ni/oticus) 
Molecular genetic methods have been used to investigate the historical population 
patterns resulting from introduction of the Nile tilapia into the lakes of Uganda. Genetic 
polymorphisms were studied in populations of Oreochromis ni/oricus from the Lake 
Victoria basin and the Lake Kyoga basin, in both of which it is not native. Genetic 
variations was also studied in populations from Lake Albert and the Lake Edward-George 
system, from which transplanted Nile tilapia populations of lakes Victoria and Kyoga are 
thought to have originated. Genetic variation was determined using the method of 
Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Genetic differences between 
populations have been determined by measuring RAPD band sharing and calculating 
genetic similarity from the percent of band sharing. Populations within a lake basin (i.e. 
3 
Lake Victoria or Lake Kyoga) were more similar to each other than to populations from 
other basins. Populations from the Lake Victoria basin were more similar to the putative 
source population of Lake Edward than to other possible sources, while the populations 
from Lake Kyoga were more similar to the putative source population sampled from 
Lake Albert. Populations from the Lake Kyoga basin were less diverse than those from 
the Lake Victoria basin, consistent with the hypothesis that introductions into Lake 
Kyoga are more recent and that a more diverse set of introductions may have contributed 
to the older populations of Lake Victoria. 
Haplochromine species 
Most genetics studies of haplochromine species of the LVR prior to studies by Fuerst at 
Ohio State University and Kaufman at Boston University have been focussed on species 
radiation, phylogenetics and loss of species. Our studies have been broadened to include 
detailed studies of individual key haplochromine species. In our on going studies we have 
selected several key species (Wu et al. 1999) representative of extant genera as defined 
by Greenwood (1981). Among the reasons for lack of studies on the population genetics 
of haplochromine species was the depuaperate nature of genetic variation of 
haplochromine species as revealed by the conventional molecular markers' such as 
aJlozyme (Sage et al. 1984) and mitochondrial DNA sequencing (Meyer et al. 1990). The 
evolutionary younger nature of haplochromine species and their history of recent 
divergence made such molecular tools useless in differentiating individuals and/or 
populations within species. But with the recent advancement in molecular technology, 
development of techniques such as RAPDs and microsateJlites has enabled us to generate 
genetic markers which have revealed a high level of genetic diversity within and among 
populations of key representative species of the haplochromine flock of the LVR. This 
studies have greatly improved the ability to discern relationships among individuals 
within a population and between populations of haplochromine species as well as allow 
us to detail phyletic relationships among species. 
4 


Characterization of genetic biodiversity of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, Tilapiines, Haplochromine flock and Ningu (Labeo victorianus) in the Victoria Lake Basin: an overview

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Characterization of genetic biodiversity of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, Tilapiines, Haplochromine flock and Ningu (Labeo victorianus) in the Victoria Lake Basin: an overview

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