In 1984 an epizootic of eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus killed 7 of 39 (18%) whooping cranes in captivity at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland, USA. Since that time whooping cranes have been vaccinated with a human EEE vaccine. This vaccine was unavailable for several years, necessitating use of an equine vaccine in the cranes. This study compared the antibody titers measured for three years using the human vaccine with those measured for two years using the equine form. Whooping cranes developed similarly elevated titers in one year using the human vaccine and both years using the equine vaccine. However, in two years where the human vaccine was used, the whooping cranes developed significantly lower titers compared to other years

Docherty, Douglas E.

Hatfield, Jeff S.

Kolski, Erin

Olsen, Glenn H.

English

UNL | Libraries

University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
North American Crane Workshop Proceedings North American Crane Working Group
2005
WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN
EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS
Glenn H. Olsen
USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
Erin Kolski
Eleanor Roosevelt High School
Jeff S. Hatfield
USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, jhatfield@usgs.gov
Douglas E. Docherty
USGS National Wildlife Health Center
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nacwgproc
Part of the Behavior and Ethology Commons, Biodiversity Commons, Ornithology Commons,
Population Biology Commons, and the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecology Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the North American Crane Working Group at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska -
Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in North American Crane Workshop Proceedings by an authorized administrator of
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Olsen, Glenn H.; Kolski, Erin; Hatfield, Jeff S.; and Docherty, Douglas E., "WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINE
ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS" (2005). North American Crane Workshop Proceedings. 41.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nacwgproc/41
      21
WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS
GLENN H. OLSEN, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12302 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708
ERIN KOLSKI, Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Greenbelt, MD
JEFF S. HATFIELD, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708
DOUGLAS E. DOCHERTY, USGS National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711
Abstract:   In 1984 an epizootic of eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus killed 7 of 39 (18%) whooping cranes in captivity at 
the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland, USA.  Since that time whooping cranes have been vaccinated with a 
human EEE vaccine.  This vaccine was unavailable for several years, necessitating use of an equine vaccine in the cranes.  This 
study compared the antibody titers measured for three years using the human vaccine with those measured for two years using the 
equine form.  Whooping cranes developed similarly elevated titers in one year using the human vaccine and both years using the 
equine vaccine.  However, in two years where the human vaccine was used, the whooping cranes developed significantly lower 
titers compared to other years.
PROCEEDINGS NORTH AMERICAN CRANE WORKSHOP 9:21-23
Key words:  Grus americana, eastern equine encephalitis, titers, vaccine, virus, whooping crane
 Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) is a clinically important 
disease of horses, people, and some birds including whooping 
cranes (Grus americana). EEE is classified as a zoonotic vector-
borne alpha virus. The virus is found in eastern North America 
and is maintained and amplified by a mosquito-wild bird cycle. 
Native wild passerines carry the virus and initiate the cycle, 
with viremic birds being found 37-51 days before virus is first 
detected in mosquitoes beginning in July or August and lasting 
through October (Crans et al. 1994). The virus is then spread 
by the mosquitoes and amplified in the hatch-year passerines. 
EEE does not typically produce morbidity or mortality in native 
passerines, but has been known to cause mortality in non-native 
birds (pheasants, emus; Tengelsen 2001), horses, bats (Main 
1979), and humans.
 Vaccination as a tool to control arbovirus infections in 
horses is a widespread practice that provides effective protec-
tion (American Association of Equine Practitioners, 1995; Ten-
glesen et al. 2001). Commercially available equine vaccines 
for EEE are used to protect emus from the disease (Tengelson 
et al. 2001). Between September 17 and December 5, 1984 an 
epizootic of EEE killed 7 of 39 captive whooping cranes at 
the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland USA 
(Dein et al. 1986, Carpenter et al. 1989). Following the 1984 
EEE epizootic at Patuxent, all whooping cranes began receiv-
ing annual injections of EEE vaccine (Clark et al. 1987; Ol-
sen et al. 1997). There were no challenge studies done with the 
endangered whooping cranes.  Naturally occurring epizootics 
were documented in sentinel birds and in mosquitoes, with no 
morbidity or mortality in captive whooping cranes.  This led 
to the conclusion that the vaccination program was efficacious 
(Olsen et al. 1997). In 2000 and 2001, the human EEE vaccine 
previously used was not available for the whooping cranes at 
Patuxent.  As an alternative; the birds were vaccinated with a 
commercially available equine vaccine. 
 The objective of this study was to compare antibody titer 
levels observed in years when the human vaccine was used with 
the 2 years when the equine vaccine was used.  When an equine 
vaccine was first tested in the 1980’s, the titer levels were lower 
than those seen with the human vaccine (Clark et al. 1987), and 
we wanted to discover if this was still true with the currently 
available equine vaccine.
METHODS
 All adult whooping cranes housed at Patuxent were kept 
in 15 x 20 m outdoor pens. Very young whooping crane chicks 
being costume-reared for release programs spent the first 7-10 
days confined indoors in 3 x 3 m pens, but afterwards were in 
indoor/outdoor pens until 40-50 days of age, after which time 
they were housed totally outside.
 All whooping crane chicks received their first injection of 
EEE vaccine in July. For 1989-1999 this was 0.5 ml intramus-
cular injection of the PE 6 WRAIR strain human EEE vaccine 
(The Salk Institute, Government Service Division, Swiftwater, 
Pennsylvania, USA).  This was followed 1 month later by an in-
tramuscular injection of 1.0 ml. Yearly revaccination using the 
same 1.0 ml dose of the PE 6 WRAIR EEE vaccine occurred 
in late August or early September, to coincide with the seasonal 
peak of activity (August-October) for the EEE carrying mos-
quito (Culiseta melanura) at Patuxent (Pagac et al, 1992). 
 In 2000 and 2001, all adult whooping cranes received a 
1.0 ml intramuscular dose of Encephaloid M (EEE and west-
ern equine encephalitis vaccine, Fort Dodge Laboratories, Fort 
Dodge, Iowa USA) in August of each year. All whooping crane 
chicks received the same Encephaloid M as 0.5 ml intramuscu-
larly in July and 1.0 ml intramuscularly in August of their hatch 
year.
 Blood samples to obtain serum for titers were collected 
22   EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS TITIERS · Olsen et al.                        Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005          
in late October or early November of each year during rou-
tine health examinations of the whooping cranes. Serum was 
shipped frozen to the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, 
Madison, Wisconsin, USA for analysis by hemaglutination-
inhibition testing (HI, 1994-1997) or by serum neutralization 
testing (SN, 2000-2001) at the National Veterinary Services 
Laboratory, Ames, Iowa, USA.  We analyzed the EEE titers for 
1994, 1996 and 1997, years in which the human vaccine was 
used, and the most recent years (2000, 2001) when the equine 
vaccine was used.  Due to budget constraints, no titers had been 
tested in 1995, 1998 or 1999.
 Data were analyzed with a repeated measure analysis of 
variance (ANOVA) using a compound symmetry model in the 
mixed-models procedure of SAS (Statistical Analysis System, 
Version 6.12; 1997). The subject factor was crane identification 
number nested with gender. Prior to analysis, titers were trans-
formed with a log 10 transformation to help achieve normality 
and homoscedasticity of residuals. Pairwise comparisons were 
performed on the least square means using a Tukey multiple 
comparison procedure (P < 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 Antibody titers were available from a total of 52 whooping 
cranes for the years 1994-1997 (human vaccine) and 2000-2001 
(equine vaccine).  For the 3 years when the human vaccine was 
used, the titers were highly variable (Table 1). The titers for 
1994 were very low, while the 1996 titers were high, equiva-
lent to those found with the equine vaccine. The 1997 titers 
were higher than 1994 but lower than 1996. Table 1 shows the 
untransformed means, sample sizes, and standard deviations, 
as well as pairwise comparison results of the log-transformed 
least square means. The mean titers for 1996, 2000, and 2001 
were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from each other. The 
titer means for 1994 and 1997 were significantly different from 
each other and were different from 1996, 2000, 2001 EEE mean 
titers (P < 0.05).  We used two different tests to determine the 
titers (HI and SN) but saw no differences in titer levels in 1996 
(HI), 2000 or 2001 (SN).  Titers seen with the human vaccine 
were considered protective due to the absence of morbidity or 
mortality seen in whooping cranes in years since 1984 when 
EEE was detected in mosquitoes and sentinel birds (Olsen et 
al. 1997).  The equine vaccine tested produced titers equal to or 
higher than those produced by the human vaccine, which would 
suggest adequate protection.
 Initial testing of a commercially available equine EEE vac-
cine and the Salk human EEE vaccine in the 1980’s had shown 
superior titer levels when using the human vaccine (Clark et. 
al, 1987). Therefore, the decision was made to vaccinate the 
captive whooping cranes with the human vaccine. Unavailabil-
ity of this vaccine starting in 2000  prompted the switch to an 
equine form of EEE vaccine. These results show that the titers 
obtained from this new equine EEE vaccine equal or exceed the 
titers seen with the human EEE vaccine used in the past.  The 
human vaccine continues to be unavailable today, and, given 
current world events, it is unlikely to be released by the military 
any time soon.  Therefore, continued use of an equine EEE vac-
cine appears to be an appropriate management tool to prevent 
this disease in captive whooping cranes.    
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 The authors thank the Crane Crew at the Patuxent Wild-
life Research Refuge Center for their help in obtaining blood 
samples, veterinary technicians Lorie Shaul, Alex Lewis and 
Jennifer Kodak at Patuxent, the laboratory technicians at the 
Table 1.  Geometric mean, sample size, standard error, and Tukey’s multiple comparison 
test of eastern equine encephalitis virus antibody titers measured in whooping cranes 
(Grus americana) at Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland USA, 1994-
2001.
a  Means with the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05), based on 
Tukey’s multiple comparison procedure of the least square means generated from 
the log-transformed titer levels in the repeated measures ANOVA.
Year       Sample Size (n)   Geometric Mean        Standard Error        Tukey’s testa
1994               33                         6.08                         1.22                          A 
1996               39                       88.13                         1.21                          B 
1997               37                       15.07                         1.21                          C 
2000               52                       81.23                         1.19                          B 
2001               51                       82.64                         1.19                          B 
Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005                         EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS TITIERS · Olsen et al.    23
NWHC, especially Renee Long and Kristina Egstad.  We also 
thank the USAMRIID, Fort Detrick, Fredrick Maryland, USA 
for supplying us with the SALK human EEE vaccine used at 
Patuxent for the protection of the whooping cranes throughout 
the 1990’s.
LITERATURE CITED
Carpenter, J. W, G. G. Clark, and D. M. Watts.  1989.   The 
 impact of eastern equine encephalitis virus on efforts to 
 recover the endangered whooping crane. Technical Publi-
 cation No. 10, International Council for Bird Preserva- 
 tion, Cambridge, UK. Pages 115-120
Clark, G. G., F. J. Dein, C. L. Crabbs, J. W. Carpenter, and D. 
 M. Watts.  1987.  Antibody response of sandhill and  
 whooping cranes to an eastern equine encephalitis virus 
 vaccine.  Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23:539-544.
Council on Biology and Therapeutic Agents.  1995.  Guide- 
 lines for vaccination of horses.  Journal of the American 
 Veterinary Medical Association, 207:426-430.
Crans, W. J, D. F. Caccamise, and J. R. McNelly.  1994.  East- 
 ern equine encephalomyelitis virus in relation to the avian 
 community of a coastal cedar swamp.  Journal of Medical 
 Entomology 31(5):711-728
Dein, F. J, J. W Carpenter, G. G. Clark, R. J. Montali, C. L.
 Crabbs, T. F. Tsai, and D. E. Docherty.  1986.  Mortality  
 of captive whooping cranes caused by eastern equine en-
 cephalitis virus.  Journal of the American Veterinary Med-
 ical Association, 189:1006-1010.
Main, A. J.  1979.  Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in 
 experimentally infected bats.  Journal of Wildlife Diseas- 
 es, 15(3):467-477
Olsen, G. H., M. J. Turell, and B. B. Pagac.  1997.  Efficacy of 
 eastern equine encephalitis immunization in whooping 
 cranes.  Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33(2):312-315.  
Pagac, B. B., M. J. Turell, and G. H. Olsen.  1992.  Eastern
 equine encephalomyelitis virus and Culiseta melanura ac-
 tivity at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 1985-90. 
 Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, 
 8(3):328-330.
Tengelsen, L. A., R. A. Bowen, M. A. Royals, G. L. Campbell,
 N. Komar, and R. B. Craven.  2001.  Response to and ef-
 ficacy of vaccination against eastern equine encephalomy-
 elitis virus in emus.  Journal of the American Veterinary 
 Medical Association, 218:1469-1473.  
24                                                                                                                                    Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005      


WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - LincolnDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - LincolnNorth American Crane Workshop Proceedings North American Crane Working Group2005WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERNEQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONSGlenn H. OlsenUSGS Patuxent Wildlife Research CenterErin KolskiEleanor Roosevelt High SchoolJeff S. HatfieldUSGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, jhatfield@usgs.govDouglas E. DochertyUSGS National Wildlife Health CenterFollow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nacwgprocPart of the Behavior and Ethology Commons, Biodiversity Commons, Ornithology Commons,Population Biology Commons, and the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecology CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the North American Crane Working Group at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska -Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in North American Crane Workshop Proceedings by an authorized administrator ofDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln.Olsen, Glenn H.; Kolski, Erin; Hatfield, Jeff S.; and Docherty, Douglas E., "WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINEENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS" (2005). North American Crane Workshop Proceedings. 41.https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nacwgproc/41      21WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONSGLENN H. OLSEN, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12302 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708ERIN KOLSKI, Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Greenbelt, MDJEFF S. HATFIELD, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD 20708DOUGLAS E. DOCHERTY, USGS National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI 53711Abstract:   In 1984 an epizootic of eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus killed 7 of 39 (18%) whooping cranes in captivity at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland, USA.  Since that time whooping cranes have been vaccinated with a human EEE vaccine.  This vaccine was unavailable for several years, necessitating use of an equine vaccine in the cranes.  This study compared the antibody titers measured for three years using the human vaccine with those measured for two years using the equine form.  Whooping cranes developed similarly elevated titers in one year using the human vaccine and both years using the equine vaccine.  However, in two years where the human vaccine was used, the whooping cranes developed significantly lower titers compared to other years.PROCEEDINGS NORTH AMERICAN CRANE WORKSHOP 9:21-23Key words:  Grus americana, eastern equine encephalitis, titers, vaccine, virus, whooping crane Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) is a clinically important disease of horses, people, and some birds including whooping cranes (Grus americana). EEE is classified as a zoonotic vector-borne alpha virus. The virus is found in eastern North America and is maintained and amplified by a mosquito-wild bird cycle. Native wild passerines carry the virus and initiate the cycle, with viremic birds being found 37-51 days before virus is first detected in mosquitoes beginning in July or August and lasting through October (Crans et al. 1994). The virus is then spread by the mosquitoes and amplified in the hatch-year passerines. EEE does not typically produce morbidity or mortality in native passerines, but has been known to cause mortality in non-native birds (pheasants, emus; Tengelsen 2001), horses, bats (Main 1979), and humans. Vaccination as a tool to control arbovirus infections in horses is a widespread practice that provides effective protec-tion (American Association of Equine Practitioners, 1995; Ten-glesen et al. 2001). Commercially available equine vaccines for EEE are used to protect emus from the disease (Tengelson et al. 2001). Between September 17 and December 5, 1984 an epizootic of EEE killed 7 of 39 captive whooping cranes at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland USA (Dein et al. 1986, Carpenter et al. 1989). Following the 1984 EEE epizootic at Patuxent, all whooping cranes began receiv-ing annual injections of EEE vaccine (Clark et al. 1987; Ol-sen et al. 1997). There were no challenge studies done with the endangered whooping cranes.  Naturally occurring epizootics were documented in sentinel birds and in mosquitoes, with no morbidity or mortality in captive whooping cranes.  This led to the conclusion that the vaccination program was efficacious (Olsen et al. 1997). In 2000 and 2001, the human EEE vaccine previously used was not available for the whooping cranes at Patuxent.  As an alternative; the birds were vaccinated with a commercially available equine vaccine.  The objective of this study was to compare antibody titer levels observed in years when the human vaccine was used with the 2 years when the equine vaccine was used.  When an equine vaccine was first tested in the 1980’s, the titer levels were lower than those seen with the human vaccine (Clark et al. 1987), and we wanted to discover if this was still true with the currently available equine vaccine.METHODS All adult whooping cranes housed at Patuxent were kept in 15 x 20 m outdoor pens. Very young whooping crane chicks being costume-reared for release programs spent the first 7-10 days confined indoors in 3 x 3 m pens, but afterwards were in indoor/outdoor pens until 40-50 days of age, after which time they were housed totally outside. All whooping crane chicks received their first injection of EEE vaccine in July. For 1989-1999 this was 0.5 ml intramus-cular injection of the PE 6 WRAIR strain human EEE vaccine (The Salk Institute, Government Service Division, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania, USA).  This was followed 1 month later by an in-tramuscular injection of 1.0 ml. Yearly revaccination using the same 1.0 ml dose of the PE 6 WRAIR EEE vaccine occurred in late August or early September, to coincide with the seasonal peak of activity (August-October) for the EEE carrying mos-quito (Culiseta melanura) at Patuxent (Pagac et al, 1992).  In 2000 and 2001, all adult whooping cranes received a 1.0 ml intramuscular dose of Encephaloid M (EEE and west-ern equine encephalitis vaccine, Fort Dodge Laboratories, Fort Dodge, Iowa USA) in August of each year. All whooping crane chicks received the same Encephaloid M as 0.5 ml intramuscu-larly in July and 1.0 ml intramuscularly in August of their hatch year. Blood samples to obtain serum for titers were collected 22   EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS TITIERS · Olsen et al.                        Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005          in late October or early November of each year during rou-tine health examinations of the whooping cranes. Serum was shipped frozen to the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA for analysis by hemaglutination-inhibition testing (HI, 1994-1997) or by serum neutralization testing (SN, 2000-2001) at the National Veterinary Services Laboratory, Ames, Iowa, USA.  We analyzed the EEE titers for 1994, 1996 and 1997, years in which the human vaccine was used, and the most recent years (2000, 2001) when the equine vaccine was used.  Due to budget constraints, no titers had been tested in 1995, 1998 or 1999. Data were analyzed with a repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a compound symmetry model in the mixed-models procedure of SAS (Statistical Analysis System, Version 6.12; 1997). The subject factor was crane identification number nested with gender. Prior to analysis, titers were trans-formed with a log 10 transformation to help achieve normality and homoscedasticity of residuals. Pairwise comparisons were performed on the least square means using a Tukey multiple comparison procedure (P < 0.05).RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Antibody titers were available from a total of 52 whooping cranes for the years 1994-1997 (human vaccine) and 2000-2001 (equine vaccine).  For the 3 years when the human vaccine was used, the titers were highly variable (Table 1). The titers for 1994 were very low, while the 1996 titers were high, equiva-lent to those found with the equine vaccine. The 1997 titers were higher than 1994 but lower than 1996. Table 1 shows the untransformed means, sample sizes, and standard deviations, as well as pairwise comparison results of the log-transformed least square means. The mean titers for 1996, 2000, and 2001 were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from each other. The titer means for 1994 and 1997 were significantly different from each other and were different from 1996, 2000, 2001 EEE mean titers (P < 0.05).  We used two different tests to determine the titers (HI and SN) but saw no differences in titer levels in 1996 (HI), 2000 or 2001 (SN).  Titers seen with the human vaccine were considered protective due to the absence of morbidity or mortality seen in whooping cranes in years since 1984 when EEE was detected in mosquitoes and sentinel birds (Olsen et al. 1997).  The equine vaccine tested produced titers equal to or higher than those produced by the human vaccine, which would suggest adequate protection. Initial testing of a commercially available equine EEE vac-cine and the Salk human EEE vaccine in the 1980’s had shown superior titer levels when using the human vaccine (Clark et. al, 1987). Therefore, the decision was made to vaccinate the captive whooping cranes with the human vaccine. Unavailabil-ity of this vaccine starting in 2000  prompted the switch to an equine form of EEE vaccine. These results show that the titers obtained from this new equine EEE vaccine equal or exceed the titers seen with the human EEE vaccine used in the past.  The human vaccine continues to be unavailable today, and, given current world events, it is unlikely to be released by the military any time soon.  Therefore, continued use of an equine EEE vac-cine appears to be an appropriate management tool to prevent this disease in captive whooping cranes.    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank the Crane Crew at the Patuxent Wild-life Research Refuge Center for their help in obtaining blood samples, veterinary technicians Lorie Shaul, Alex Lewis and Jennifer Kodak at Patuxent, the laboratory technicians at the Table 1.  Geometric mean, sample size, standard error, and Tukey’s multiple comparison test of eastern equine encephalitis virus antibody titers measured in whooping cranes (Grus americana) at Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland USA, 1994-2001.a  Means with the same letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05), based on Tukey’s multiple comparison procedure of the least square means generated from the log-transformed titer levels in the repeated measures ANOVA.Year       Sample Size (n)   Geometric Mean        Standard Error        Tukey’s testa1994               33                         6.08                         1.22                          A 1996               39                       88.13                         1.21                          B 1997               37                       15.07                         1.21                          C 2000               52                       81.23                         1.19                          B 2001               51                       82.64                         1.19                          B Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005                         EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS TITIERS · Olsen et al.    23NWHC, especially Renee Long and Kristina Egstad.  We also thank the USAMRIID, Fort Detrick, Fredrick Maryland, USA for supplying us with the SALK human EEE vaccine used at Patuxent for the protection of the whooping cranes throughout the 1990’s.LITERATURE CITEDCarpenter, J. W, G. G. Clark, and D. M. Watts.  1989.   The  impact of eastern equine encephalitis virus on efforts to  recover the endangered whooping crane. Technical Publi- cation No. 10, International Council for Bird Preserva-  tion, Cambridge, UK. Pages 115-120Clark, G. G., F. J. Dein, C. L. Crabbs, J. W. Carpenter, and D.  M. Watts.  1987.  Antibody response of sandhill and   whooping cranes to an eastern equine encephalitis virus  vaccine.  Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23:539-544.Council on Biology and Therapeutic Agents.  1995.  Guide-  lines for vaccination of horses.  Journal of the American  Veterinary Medical Association, 207:426-430.Crans, W. J, D. F. Caccamise, and J. R. McNelly.  1994.  East-  ern equine encephalomyelitis virus in relation to the avian  community of a coastal cedar swamp.  Journal of Medical  Entomology 31(5):711-728Dein, F. J, J. W Carpenter, G. G. Clark, R. J. Montali, C. L. Crabbs, T. F. Tsai, and D. E. Docherty.  1986.  Mortality   of captive whooping cranes caused by eastern equine en- cephalitis virus.  Journal of the American Veterinary Med- ical Association, 189:1006-1010.Main, A. J.  1979.  Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus in  experimentally infected bats.  Journal of Wildlife Diseas-  es, 15(3):467-477Olsen, G. H., M. J. Turell, and B. B. Pagac.  1997.  Efficacy of  eastern equine encephalitis immunization in whooping  cranes.  Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33(2):312-315.  Pagac, B. B., M. J. Turell, and G. H. Olsen.  1992.  Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus and Culiseta melanura ac- tivity at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 1985-90.  Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association,  8(3):328-330.Tengelsen, L. A., R. A. Bowen, M. A. Royals, G. L. Campbell, N. Komar, and R. B. Craven.  2001.  Response to and ef- ficacy of vaccination against eastern equine encephalomy- elitis virus in emus.  Journal of the American Veterinary  Medical Association, 218:1469-1473.  24                                                                                                                                    Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop     9:2005      

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WHOOPING CRANE TITERS TO EASTERN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINATIONS

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