Extension Circular 61-717 is about watering and fertilizing lawns through sprinklers

Mulliner, H. R.

Temple, H. W.

English

UNL | Libraries

University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Historical Materials from University of Nebraska-
Lincoln Extension Extension
1961
EC61-717 Watering and Fertilizing Lawns through
Sprinklers
H. R. Mulliner
H. W. Temple
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Extension at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for
inclusion in Historical Materials from University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of
Nebraska - Lincoln.
Mulliner, H. R. and Temple, H. W., "EC61-717 Watering and Fertilizing Lawns through Sprinklers" (1961). Historical Materials from
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension. 3537.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/3537
E.C. 61-717 
Fertilizing lawns 
through 
SPRINKLERS 
EXTENSION SERVICE 
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
AND U . B. DEPARTMENT OF ACJAICULTUAE 
CDOPERATINB 
E . F. F'AOLIK, DEAN E . W . .JANIK£, DIRECTOR 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
page 
Amount of Water Soils Can Hold.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 
Depth of Grass Roots Affect Water Use .. ... ..... 4 
Amount of Water Required to Wet Different Soils.. 5 
How Long to Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 
How t o C heck Sprinkler For Application Rate . . . . . 6 
When to Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 
Time of Day .................. . ... . ·· . . . . . . . . . 7 
Watering New Lawns .. .. . . ....•... -.. ......... 8 
Fertilizing Through Irrigation Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 
Amount of Fertilizer t o Apply in Water. . . . . . . . . . . 9 
2 
by 
H. R. Mulliner & H. W. Temple.!/ 
FOREWORD 
Proper use of water is one of the most important 
requirements for maintaining attractive, cool-season 
grassed areas, suoh as bluegrass. For established 
turf, the rules are simple: 
(1) Irrigate only when the grass needs water. 
(2) Water deeply. 
(3) Avoid the common mistake of sprinkling lightly 
every day just "to cool things off." 
By following these simple rules you can avoid un-
favorable soil conditions, save fertilizer, reduce dis-
ease, insect, and weed problems, and improve the 
quality of the turf. 
1/Assistant Professor, Agricultural Engineering (Agri-
cultural Extension), Assistant Extension Agricul-
turist, respectively. 
3 
AMOUNT OF WATER SOILS CAN HOLD 
The amount of water a soil can hold depends upon 
its texture, or size of soil particles, and its depth. 
The illustrations below show why grass on sandy soils 
must be watered more often. Too much water is as much 
a problem as too little . Air in the soil is as important 
as water for the growth of grass. 
Sand particles are much larger than clay particles; thus 
sands have less area on which to store water. 
DEPTH OF GRASS ROOTS AFFECTS WATER USE 
The plant can use soil moisture only to the depth 
the roots have penetrated . The deeper the grass roots, 
the longer the period between irrigations. On deep 
clay soils, bluegrass roots have been known to use 
most of the available soil moisture to a depth of 2. 5 
feet .l/ 
-1 il· .. 
9'!.15'' 
Normal bluegrass lawn 
root development under 
good irrigation practices . 
! 
Root depth when too fre-
quent and too light water-
ings are used. 
1/Robert M. Hagen, Chairman, Department of Irrigation , 
University of California, Davis, California. 
4 
WATER REQUIRED TO WET DIFFERENT SOILS 
TO DIFFERENT DEPTHS 
12!:Y. Soil 
(Grass Wilted) 
Half of Moisture Removed 
(Grass in Excellent Condition) 
INCHES OF WATER REQUIRED 0 w INCHES OF WATER REQUIRED 
0 I 2. 3 4 B 6 
E> ·~ :~ t- EYAMPt.E 
. \ !'.. .......... I 
--
- " 
- ..... 
I'-... 
\ 
"" 
""-... 
12 
18 
~ 
30 
36 
\ ['... 
"' .• \. 
' SAND LOAM 
Figure I 
7 I! "fit ) 1 
"""-
6 .. iiil ~ g & .~ :-+ 
2" = ·~ 12 
8" ~~ 18 
24" u....: 24 
I . \\~ 
Ow 
I \ 
" \I \ \ 
2 3 4 
1- EJ'AMPt.~ 
~ 
"\ 
'\. :so• :I:~ 30 3c"li:o ~ 
CL.AY ~ 1- SAND LOAM CI.A'( 
5 ? 
I 
I 
{:, . 
2. 
8'" 
24'' 
30'' 
3f:." 
Figure I shows that 2. 5 inches of water is required 
to wet a dry clay soil t o a depth of 12 inches . But a 
clay soil that has half of the available moisture removed 
requires only 1 .25 inches of water to wet it to a depth 
of 12 inches. 
The rates at which soils with grass c over will absorb 
water are: 
Sands - 0. 7 to 0. 9 inches per hour 
Loams - 0. 3 to 0. 5 inches per hour 
Clays - 0 .15 to 0 .25 inches per hour 
HOW LONG TO WATER 
Water to a depth of 9 to 15 inches. This will in-
clude the root penetration of most lawn grasses. Shrubs 
and tree roots in grassed areas will use any moisture 
which penetrates below this depth. Assuming that 1/2 
of the water in the first foot of soil has been used by 
the grass, watering t o this depth will take approximately 
the following time: (Figures are based on a sprinkler 
which puts out 1.Ll of an inch per hour) 
Sands - 1 to 2 hours 
Loam s - 2 to 3 hours 
Clays - 4 to 5 hours 
5 
Choosing a Sprinkler: Select a sprinkler which will 
not cause too much runoff and one that will cover the 
lawn evenly with water. 
HOW TO CHECK YOUR &PRINKLER 
FOR APPLICATION RATE 
1. Place rain gauges or coffee cans as shown in 
illustration. Space cans equally from sprinkler to outer 
edge of wetted area. 
2. Run sprinkler at full force for one hour. 
3. Measure amount of water in each can. This 
measurement is equal to the amount of water in inches 
that has fallen at this point. 
~___:-~~~ 
/' ~ .ft--7 -~ ':"" ::. ~ + ~~ ....... ,~ 
... 
3
r ... ..  ..;c , . . . ... ~- ·f~ · · 
30. 
How to Use This Information 
--------
L Average lawns should be watered to a depth of 
approximately 12 inches. 
2. Refer to Figure l, page 5, for information on how 
much water is needed to penetrate your particular soil 
one foot. 
6 
3. Divide inches of water required to wet one foot 
of soil by the amount of water your sprinkler will apply 
in one hour. This will give you the approximate number 
of hours needed for watering one area of your lawn. 
{Be sure that your soil will absorb the amount of w ate r 
applied by your sprinkler in that length of time. See 
Page 5 for rates at which soil will absorb water.) 
WHEN TO WATER 
Check soil, not condition of grass, for moisture 
Soil moisture needs can be learned in two ways: 
{1) By using a soil probe and feeling the soil with the 
hand, or {2) by using gauges which give a soil moisture 
reading, such as tensiometers. Water when 1/ 2 to 3/ 4 
of the available soil moisture has been used by the 
grass. This will keep the lawn green and growing. Grass 
w ith some deep roots can show considerable wilting with 
little risk of losing the stand. In most of the state, 
watering will be needed in addition to rain during the 
growing season. 
TIME OF DAY 
Early Morning Watering Best in Mid-Summer 
In most cases, the time of watering makes little 
difference. In mid-summer, however I c e rtain fungus 
diseases may be aggravated by keeping the gra ss blades 
wet for long periods at a time. Thus I it is be st to w a t er 
early and let the sun dry the grass quickly. 
7 
WATERING NEW LAWNS 
Frequent Light Waterings Until Germinated 
Water new lawn s lightly with a fine spray twice 
a day until all grass germinates . 
FERTILIZING THROUGH IRRIGATION WATER 
Applying Fertilizer Through Water Saves Labor and Time 
Nitrogen is the element most needed by turf grasses. 
Phosphorus also helps growth and should be used where_ 
soil tests show a need. The application of from 1 to 2 
pounds of available nitrogen per 1000 square feet of 
lawn is recommended two to four times per year. Sug-
gested dates and rates are:. 
1. Top Lawn- Two pounds of nitrogen per 1000 sq. 
ft. on April 11 then one pound each on May 15 I July 1, 
and August 15 1 then a two pound application on 
October 1. 
2. Av erage Lawn - Two pounds of nitrogen per 1000 
sq. ft. 1 March 1 to April 1, then two pounds around 
September 15 to October 15. 
8 
Run the fertilizer through the sprinkler system (see 
drawing}. Then allow water to run an extra 10 minutes 
to flush the system and wash the fertilizer off the grass. 
Fertilizer solutions can be drawn into the sprinkler 
system with an aspirator. This device usually is at-
tached to the water faucet and then the hose attached 
to the aspirator. Aspirators reduce water pressure 1 
therefore I be sure to have one which will allow the 
sprinkler to operate properly. Do not apply anhydrous 
ammonia I aqua ammonia I phosphoric acid I or super 
phosphate through a sprinkler system. The ammonia 
fertilizer will evaporate into the air I while the others 
cause excessive corrosion. 
AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO APPLY IN WATER 
Measure Distance Sprinkler Covers 
To find the amount of fertilizer to apply 1 measure 
t he radius (center to edge} of the area covered by a 
circular sprinkler 1 or the length and width of the area 
covered by a rectangular sprinkler, then refer to Table I 
for the square feet in the area covered. For the amount 
of fertilizer needed for this area I refer to Table II. 
9 
Table I. Area Covered By Sprinkler 
Circular Pattern Rectangular Pattern 
(measure from center to edge} 
Radius covered by Area in Length & Width Area in 
sprinkler in feet sq. ft. covered in ft. sq. ft. 
5' 78 20' X 10' 200 
10 1 314 30' X 15' 450 
15' 705 40' X 20' 800 
20' 1258 so· x 25' 1250 
25' 1970 60' X 30' 1800 
30' 2820 70' X 35' 2450 
Table II lists some of the fertilizers which might 
be used on lawn grasses. Fertilizers are labeled ac-
cording to their strength in nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium. A fertilizer labeled 10-6-4 means that 10% 
of the total weight is nitrogen, 6% of the weight is phos-
phorus, and 4% is potassium. 
Example: Assume the following: (1) One pound of 
nitrogen wanted per 1000 sq. ft., (2) Sprinkler covers 
a rectangular pattern with a length of 50 feet and width 
of 25 feet, (3) The fertilizer will be Ammonium Nitrate 
(33. 5 - 0 - 0). From Table I, find area of 50' x 25' 
equals 1250 sq. ft. Next, from Table II, follow Ammo-
nium Nitrate across to the column under 1000 sq. ft. 
The amount of fertilizer required is 3 pounds . An area 
of 1500 sq. ft. requires 4 1/2 pounds of fertilizer. 
Since the area covered by the sprinkler in the example 
is midway between 1000 sq. ft. and 1500 sq . ft., apply 
3 3/4 lbs. of fertilizer during each sprinkler set. 
lO 
Table II. Fertilizers & Application Rates 
(To Apply Nitrogen at Rate of 1 lb , per 100e Sq . Ft.) 
-
Name of 
Fertilizer Analysis Area Covered by Sprinkler in Sq. Ft. 
100 500 1000 15.00 2000 
. 
Amount of Fertilizer to Apply 
~ 
Urea 45-0-0 1/4 lb. 1 lb. 2 1/4 lbs. 3 1/4 lbs. 4 1/2 _lbs. 
1Ammonium 
' I Nitrate 33.5-0-0 1/4 lb. 1 1/2 lbs. 3 lbs. 4 1/2 lbs·. 6 lbs. Ammonium 
Sulphate 20-0-0 1/2 lb. 2 1/2 lbs. 5 lbs. 7 1/2 lbs. 10 lbs. 
jAmmonium j Phosphate 13-39-0 3/4 lb. 3 3/4 lb. 7 3/4lbs. 11 1/2 lbs. 15 1/2 lbs . 
Ammonium 
Phosphate 16-20-0 3/4 lb. 3 lbs. 6 1/4 lbs. 9 1/2 lbs. 12 1/2 lbs. 
Ammonium 
Phosphate 11-18-0 1 lb. 4 1/2 lbs. 9 lbs. 13 3/5 lbs. 18 1/5 lbs. 
Others 10-6-4 I 
or less 1 lb. 5 lbs. 10 lbs. 15 lbs. 20 lbs. 1 


EC61-717  Watering and Fertilizing Lawns through Sprinklers

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska

University of Nebraska - LincolnDigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - LincolnHistorical Materials from University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension Extension1961EC61-717 Watering and Fertilizing Lawns throughSprinklersH. R. MullinerH. W. TempleFollow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhistThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Extension at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted forinclusion in Historical Materials from University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University ofNebraska - Lincoln.Mulliner, H. R. and Temple, H. W., "EC61-717 Watering and Fertilizing Lawns through Sprinklers" (1961). Historical Materials fromUniversity of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension. 3537.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/3537E.C. 61-717 Fertilizing lawns through SPRINKLERS EXTENSION SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND U . B. DEPARTMENT OF ACJAICULTUAE CDOPERATINB E . F. F'AOLIK, DEAN E . W . .JANIK£, DIRECTOR TABLE OF CONTENTS page Amount of Water Soils Can Hold.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Depth of Grass Roots Affect Water Use .. ... ..... 4 Amount of Water Required to Wet Different Soils.. 5 How Long to Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 How t o C heck Sprinkler For Application Rate . . . . . 6 When to Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Time of Day .................. . ... . ·· . . . . . . . . . 7 Watering New Lawns .. .. . . ....•... -.. ......... 8 Fertilizing Through Irrigation Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Amount of Fertilizer t o Apply in Water. . . . . . . . . . . 9 2 by H. R. Mulliner & H. W. Temple.!/ FOREWORD Proper use of water is one of the most important requirements for maintaining attractive, cool-season grassed areas, suoh as bluegrass. For established turf, the rules are simple: (1) Irrigate only when the grass needs water. (2) Water deeply. (3) Avoid the common mistake of sprinkling lightly every day just "to cool things off." By following these simple rules you can avoid un-favorable soil conditions, save fertilizer, reduce dis-ease, insect, and weed problems, and improve the quality of the turf. 1/Assistant Professor, Agricultural Engineering (Agri-cultural Extension), Assistant Extension Agricul-turist, respectively. 3 AMOUNT OF WATER SOILS CAN HOLD The amount of water a soil can hold depends upon its texture, or size of soil particles, and its depth. The illustrations below show why grass on sandy soils must be watered more often. Too much water is as much a problem as too little . Air in the soil is as important as water for the growth of grass. Sand particles are much larger than clay particles; thus sands have less area on which to store water. DEPTH OF GRASS ROOTS AFFECTS WATER USE The plant can use soil moisture only to the depth the roots have penetrated . The deeper the grass roots, the longer the period between irrigations. On deep clay soils, bluegrass roots have been known to use most of the available soil moisture to a depth of 2. 5 feet .l/ -1 il· .. 9'!.15'' Normal bluegrass lawn root development under good irrigation practices . ! Root depth when too fre-quent and too light water-ings are used. 1/Robert M. Hagen, Chairman, Department of Irrigation , University of California, Davis, California. 4 WATER REQUIRED TO WET DIFFERENT SOILS TO DIFFERENT DEPTHS 12!:Y. Soil (Grass Wilted) Half of Moisture Removed (Grass in Excellent Condition) INCHES OF WATER REQUIRED 0 w INCHES OF WATER REQUIRED 0 I 2. 3 4 B 6 E> ·~ :~ t- EYAMPt.E . \ !'.. .......... I --- " - ..... I'-... \ "" ""-... 12 18 ~ 30 36 \ ['... "' .• \. ' SAND LOAM Figure I 7 I! "fit ) 1 """-6 .. iiil ~ g & .~ :-+ 2" = ·~ 12 8" ~~ 18 24" u....: 24 I . \\~ Ow I \ " \I \ \ 2 3 4 1- EJ'AMPt.~ ~ "\ '\. :so• :I:~ 30 3c"li:o ~ CL.AY ~ 1- SAND LOAM CI.A'( 5 ? I I {:, . 2. 8'" 24'' 30'' 3f:." Figure I shows that 2. 5 inches of water is required to wet a dry clay soil t o a depth of 12 inches . But a clay soil that has half of the available moisture removed requires only 1 .25 inches of water to wet it to a depth of 12 inches. The rates at which soils with grass c over will absorb water are: Sands - 0. 7 to 0. 9 inches per hour Loams - 0. 3 to 0. 5 inches per hour Clays - 0 .15 to 0 .25 inches per hour HOW LONG TO WATER Water to a depth of 9 to 15 inches. This will in-clude the root penetration of most lawn grasses. Shrubs and tree roots in grassed areas will use any moisture which penetrates below this depth. Assuming that 1/2 of the water in the first foot of soil has been used by the grass, watering t o this depth will take approximately the following time: (Figures are based on a sprinkler which puts out 1.Ll of an inch per hour) Sands - 1 to 2 hours Loam s - 2 to 3 hours Clays - 4 to 5 hours 5 Choosing a Sprinkler: Select a sprinkler which will not cause too much runoff and one that will cover the lawn evenly with water. HOW TO CHECK YOUR &PRINKLER FOR APPLICATION RATE 1. Place rain gauges or coffee cans as shown in illustration. Space cans equally from sprinkler to outer edge of wetted area. 2. Run sprinkler at full force for one hour. 3. Measure amount of water in each can. This measurement is equal to the amount of water in inches that has fallen at this point. ~___:-~~~ /' ~ .ft--7 -~ ':"" ::. ~ + ~~ ....... ,~ ... 3r ... ..  ..;c , . . . ... ~- ·f~ · · 30. How to Use This Information --------L Average lawns should be watered to a depth of approximately 12 inches. 2. Refer to Figure l, page 5, for information on how much water is needed to penetrate your particular soil one foot. 6 3. Divide inches of water required to wet one foot of soil by the amount of water your sprinkler will apply in one hour. This will give you the approximate number of hours needed for watering one area of your lawn. {Be sure that your soil will absorb the amount of w ate r applied by your sprinkler in that length of time. See Page 5 for rates at which soil will absorb water.) WHEN TO WATER Check soil, not condition of grass, for moisture Soil moisture needs can be learned in two ways: {1) By using a soil probe and feeling the soil with the hand, or {2) by using gauges which give a soil moisture reading, such as tensiometers. Water when 1/ 2 to 3/ 4 of the available soil moisture has been used by the grass. This will keep the lawn green and growing. Grass w ith some deep roots can show considerable wilting with little risk of losing the stand. In most of the state, watering will be needed in addition to rain during the growing season. TIME OF DAY Early Morning Watering Best in Mid-Summer In most cases, the time of watering makes little difference. In mid-summer, however I c e rtain fungus diseases may be aggravated by keeping the gra ss blades wet for long periods at a time. Thus I it is be st to w a t er early and let the sun dry the grass quickly. 7 WATERING NEW LAWNS Frequent Light Waterings Until Germinated Water new lawn s lightly with a fine spray twice a day until all grass germinates . FERTILIZING THROUGH IRRIGATION WATER Applying Fertilizer Through Water Saves Labor and Time Nitrogen is the element most needed by turf grasses. Phosphorus also helps growth and should be used where_ soil tests show a need. The application of from 1 to 2 pounds of available nitrogen per 1000 square feet of lawn is recommended two to four times per year. Sug-gested dates and rates are:. 1. Top Lawn- Two pounds of nitrogen per 1000 sq. ft. on April 11 then one pound each on May 15 I July 1, and August 15 1 then a two pound application on October 1. 2. Av erage Lawn - Two pounds of nitrogen per 1000 sq. ft. 1 March 1 to April 1, then two pounds around September 15 to October 15. 8 Run the fertilizer through the sprinkler system (see drawing}. Then allow water to run an extra 10 minutes to flush the system and wash the fertilizer off the grass. Fertilizer solutions can be drawn into the sprinkler system with an aspirator. This device usually is at-tached to the water faucet and then the hose attached to the aspirator. Aspirators reduce water pressure 1 therefore I be sure to have one which will allow the sprinkler to operate properly. Do not apply anhydrous ammonia I aqua ammonia I phosphoric acid I or super phosphate through a sprinkler system. The ammonia fertilizer will evaporate into the air I while the others cause excessive corrosion. AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO APPLY IN WATER Measure Distance Sprinkler Covers To find the amount of fertilizer to apply 1 measure t he radius (center to edge} of the area covered by a circular sprinkler 1 or the length and width of the area covered by a rectangular sprinkler, then refer to Table I for the square feet in the area covered. For the amount of fertilizer needed for this area I refer to Table II. 9 Table I. Area Covered By Sprinkler Circular Pattern Rectangular Pattern (measure from center to edge} Radius covered by Area in Length & Width Area in sprinkler in feet sq. ft. covered in ft. sq. ft. 5' 78 20' X 10' 200 10 1 314 30' X 15' 450 15' 705 40' X 20' 800 20' 1258 so· x 25' 1250 25' 1970 60' X 30' 1800 30' 2820 70' X 35' 2450 Table II lists some of the fertilizers which might be used on lawn grasses. Fertilizers are labeled ac-cording to their strength in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. A fertilizer labeled 10-6-4 means that 10% of the total weight is nitrogen, 6% of the weight is phos-phorus, and 4% is potassium. Example: Assume the following: (1) One pound of nitrogen wanted per 1000 sq. ft., (2) Sprinkler covers a rectangular pattern with a length of 50 feet and width of 25 feet, (3) The fertilizer will be Ammonium Nitrate (33. 5 - 0 - 0). From Table I, find area of 50' x 25' equals 1250 sq. ft. Next, from Table II, follow Ammo-nium Nitrate across to the column under 1000 sq. ft. The amount of fertilizer required is 3 pounds . An area of 1500 sq. ft. requires 4 1/2 pounds of fertilizer. Since the area covered by the sprinkler in the example is midway between 1000 sq. ft. and 1500 sq . ft., apply 3 3/4 lbs. of fertilizer during each sprinkler set. lO Table II. Fertilizers & Application Rates (To Apply Nitrogen at Rate of 1 lb , per 100e Sq . Ft.) -Name of Fertilizer Analysis Area Covered by Sprinkler in Sq. Ft. 100 500 1000 15.00 2000 . Amount of Fertilizer to Apply ~ Urea 45-0-0 1/4 lb. 1 lb. 2 1/4 lbs. 3 1/4 lbs. 4 1/2 _lbs. 1Ammonium ' I Nitrate 33.5-0-0 1/4 lb. 1 1/2 lbs. 3 lbs. 4 1/2 lbs·. 6 lbs. Ammonium Sulphate 20-0-0 1/2 lb. 2 1/2 lbs. 5 lbs. 7 1/2 lbs. 10 lbs. jAmmonium j Phosphate 13-39-0 3/4 lb. 3 3/4 lb. 7 3/4lbs. 11 1/2 lbs. 15 1/2 lbs . Ammonium Phosphate 16-20-0 3/4 lb. 3 lbs. 6 1/4 lbs. 9 1/2 lbs. 12 1/2 lbs. Ammonium Phosphate 11-18-0 1 lb. 4 1/2 lbs. 9 lbs. 13 3/5 lbs. 18 1/5 lbs. Others 10-6-4 I or less 1 lb. 5 lbs. 10 lbs. 15 lbs. 20 lbs. 1 

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EC61-717 Watering and Fertilizing Lawns through Sprinklers

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