Online media, global TV and social networks played a significant role in  the Arab Spring and will be important factors in determining its future  direction, argues this report.
A positive contribution of the media to the consolidation of democratic  systems requires a dismantling of the old media order, a reform of  journalistic institutions, and a change of paradigm in the conception  and practice of journalism. The keywords of these changes are freedom of  expression, independence, public interest, ethics and excellence.
The profession is divided among the heirs of the old order, the “fellow  travellers” of the new [mostly Islamist] majority, and a minority of  “liberals” who see the media as a watchdog on the old and new powers.  International actors can play a positive role in supporting the  democratic transition if they devise a long-term strategy based on the  creation of a new journalistic and media culture.
A selective approach is needed to focus resources on reinforcing press  freedom groups; reframing training institutions; supporting key quality  media; institutionalising public service broadcasting; strengthening  press ethics not as an alibi for censorship, but as a lever for  responsible journalism; and promoting diversity and gender equality in  newsrooms and media contents. Creating a democratic media culture also  requires reinforcing so-called “citizen journalism”, i.e. the media  empowerment of the people, teaching media literacy especially in the  school system, strengthening civil society’s communications and media  skills, and setting up a state-funded but independent and impartial  public information system

Jean-Paul Marthoz

English

Analysis and Policy Observatory (APO)

NOREF Pol icy Br ief
May 2012
Jean-Paul Marthoz
The media and freedom of expression in the Arab world
Online media, global TV and social networks 
played a significant role in the Arab Spring and will 
be important factors in determining the direction 
of these “revolutions”.
A positive contribution of the media to the 
consolidation of democratic systems requires a 
dismantling of the old media order, a reform of 
journalistic institutions, and a change of paradigm 
in the conception and practice of journalism. 
The keywords of these changes are freedom of 
expression, independence, public interest, ethics 
and excellence.
The profession is divided among the heirs of the 
old order, the “fellow travellers” of the new (mostly 
Islamist) majority, and a minority of “liberals” who 
see the media as a watchdog on the old and new 
powers. International actors can play a positive 
role in supporting the democratic transition if they 
devise a long-term strategy based on the creation 
of a new journalistic and media culture. 
A selective approach is needed to focus resources 
on reinforcing press freedom groups; reframing 
training institutions; supporting key quality media; 
institutionalising public service broadcasting; 
strengthening press ethics not as an alibi for 
censorship, but as a lever for responsible 
journalism; and promoting diversity and gender 
equality in newsrooms and media contents. 
Creating a democratic media culture also requires 
reinforcing so-called “citizen journalism”, i.e. the 
media empowerment of the people, teaching 
media literacy especially in the school system, 
strengthening civil society’s communications 
and media skills, and setting up a state-funded 
but independent and impartial public information 
system. 
Jean-Paul Marthoz is senior adviser to the New York-based Committee to Protect Journalists, a consultant for the Mediterranean 
Media Programme of the Panos Institute-Paris and a professor of International Journalism at the Université de Louvain-la-Neuve. 
He is the former director of the Media for Democracy Programme (1993-1996), which supported journalism and media reform in 
sub-Saharan Africa, the Maghreb countries, Eastern Europe and Russia. Recently he has been invited to Tunisia and Morocco 
for hearings and workshops on the reform of the media.
Executive summary
2Jean-Paul Marthoz The media and freedom of expression in the Arab world
May 2012
Introduction
The media were key actors in the Arab revolutions. 
Even before the start of the Arab Spring some 
“non-official media” – pan-Arab television 
broadcasters like Al Jazeera, independent print or 
online publications like Le Journal Hebdomadaire 
in Morocco or Kalima in Tunisia, individual 
bloggers, or social networks activists – were 
already playing a significant role in undermining 
the media monopoly and political legitimacy of 
the region’s authoritarian states.
During the “revolutions” they were joined by new 
“information doers” and “citizen journalists” – the 
so-called Facebook generation – who played a 
strategic and highly symbolic role in mobilising 
public opinion.
However, while recognising the role of these 
transnational heavyweight broadcasters, informal 
“citizen” media and independent “little media”, 
the challenge today is to contribute much more 
broadly to the “refoundation” of a “mainstream” 
national public and private media system that 
will address the population at large, with a view 
to promote and protect fundamental freedoms, 
reinforce the rule of law, act independently as 
a “watchdog” on public authorities, guarantee 
pluralism, acknowledge diversity and provide 
for the inclusion of ordinary people in the “public 
conversation”.
This challenge might have to be gradual due to 
resistance to change, but it implies: 
1. a dismantling of the old legal, political and media 
system (the drawing up of a new constitution, 
the elimination of restrictive and punitive laws, 
the creation of an independent judiciary, the 
establishment of a pluralistic and autonomous 
public service broadcasting system, etc.); 
2. a reform of journalistic institutions (journalism 
schools, professional organisations, media 
councils, etc.); and
3. a change of paradigm in the conception 
and practice of journalism towards more 
independence, ethics-based journalism and 
excellence.
The situation
The Arab world is not a homogeneous space 
when it comes to assessing the media sphere. 
The Maghreb in particular presents very different 
national situations in terms of media laws, the 
strength of the independent media sector, or the 
“allowed leeway” in the coverage of “taboo topics”, 
especially Islam or the definition of the “nation”.
However, most countries in the region are 
confronted with similar challenges that limit the 
scope for the exercise of truly professional and 
independent journalism “in the public interest”, 
such as state dominance of the broadcasting 
sector, political pressures (by national 
governments, the military or Islamist groups), 
cronyism and commercialism on the part of 
media owners, and the weakness of professional 
organisations. 
The concept of journalism – of its role in a 
democratic society, and of its norms, rights and 
duties – is often blurred and uncertain. “A free 
media is not necessarily a credible media”, writes 
expert Lawrence Pintak, who recently wrote 
in the Columbia Journalism Review about the 
Arab media’s generally low standards and their 
regular practice of “inaccuracy, innuendos and 
incitement”.
The profession is also politically divided between 
supporters of the “revolutions” and those that 
worked either actively or passively with the 
old regime. A division is also clearly emerging 
between “liberal” and religious/fundamentalist 
groups that supported the overthrow of the ruling 
regimes. 
The idea of what journalism really means is also 
contentious and marks a split between journalists 
who see themselves as watchdogs and “agents 
of change” in the tradition of “committed 
journalism”; journalists who in the name of the 
“objectivity doctrine” favour a more “neutral” (or 
more market-driven) approach to the role of the 
media; and others who conceive the media as a 
tool for economic development, national cohesion 
or religious orthodoxy.
The authorities – from the military establishment 
to the new emerging religious and political 
3Jean-Paul Marthoz The media and freedom of expression in the Arab world
May 2012
forces – are ambiguous towards press freedom 
and journalism. They hesitate between the 
traditionally strong-armed system of state control 
and a more paternalistic approach that calls for 
“media responsibility” (often a code word for 
self-censorship). In these circles and among the 
public at large the idea of freedom of expression 
as the touchstone of democracy remains fragile 
and subsidiary to other factors like religion, the 
“Arab nation” or the state.
Media development
Many countries, intergovernmental organisations, 
NGOs and foundations are involved in media 
development in the region. 
Some Western donors (like France in Tunisia) 
have been compromised by their links with the 
former regime. France also suffers from the 
Arabisation movement that has been reinforced 
by the electoral power of the Islamist parties, 
which tend to present the use of the French 
language as a concession to the former colonial 
power and a symbol of anti-Muslim secularism.
Non-Western countries are also present in the 
region. However, they also raise eyebrows among 
the most independent journalists who see the Gulf 
states in particular as too close to Islamist parties 
or China as attached to forms of journalism that 
do not make a clear break with past authoritarian 
and bureaucratic practices.
Co-ordination and consultation are strongly 
advised due to the number of projects that are 
already in place. Some degree of co-ordination 
has been put in place, for instance in Tunisia, 
which is considered by many public and private 
donors as the “model” of the Arab Spring and the 
“best bet” for a democratic transition.
A reasonable approach should be to work with 
the most respected press freedom institutions 
that are already mapping the road for the media. 
In Tunisia, for instance, these institutions could 
be the INRIC (National Institute for the Reform 
of Information and Communication) and IFEX-
TMG,1 which has linked Tunisian media activists 
1 IFEX is the International Freedom of Expression Exchange network, 
based in Toronto, which co-ordinates dozens of press freedom 
groups around the world, some of them in Arab countries.
with the leading press freedom organisations 
like Article 19, Index on Censorship, Reporters 
Without Borders, the Committee to Protect 
Journalists, etc. 
This consultation process could provide very 
useful guidance regarding the fields that should 
be prioritised and covered by outside donors 
in order to avoid overlapping and conventional 
projects.
Recommendations
1. Creating a new culture of  
journalism
Reinforcing press freedom groups
Supporting press freedom groups remains 
essential. If there has been progress in the Arab 
world, as documented by Freedom House in 
its May 2012 press freedom rankings, the Arab 
Spring has not yet created a free press. Old laws 
are still on the books, security services have not 
been reformed, journalists are under pressure 
from intrusive state and corporate owners, and 
Islamist movements and the security forces are 
exerting pressure to restrict the scope of freedom 
of expression. 
Press freedom groups are fragile and sometimes 
accused of being “Western implants”. They are, 
however, key players in the creation of a new 
culture of freedom of expression that should 
expand beyond the media into the academic, 
social and religious spheres in order to build a 
stronger constituency in favour of freedom of 
expression.
Internet freedom is particularly important, as 
illustrated by the role of the Web and social 
media (Facebook, YouTube and Twitter) not only 
as communications tools for organising protests 
or meetings, but also as means of managing 
information (news gathering and distribution) and 
interactive tools (for debates and exchanges of 
views).
Helping to develop an Internet freedom policy 
and support independent Internet-based media 
would be a positive contribution to the opening 
and liberalisation of the media sphere. 
4Jean-Paul Marthoz The media and freedom of expression in the Arab world
May 2012
Reforming journalism schools and reframing 
training 
Although these countries have a pool of good 
professionals, the average level of journalism is 
rather low, mostly due to decades of repression 
that has created a culture of passivity and 
conformity. In this context most journalism schools 
have focused on teaching technical skills instead 
of the fundamental professional values, norms 
and practices of independent journalism.
Training journalists should be a significant part of 
any media programme. It could be done within 
newly reformed schools of journalism, but also 
by organising short-term “hands-on sessions” 
to teach the fundamentals of the exercise of 
journalism in a free society or specific skills 
(investigative or explanatory journalism, etc.) 
Without excluding foreign trainers, these 
programmes should rely first on local talent, even 
if tensions might be expected between the new 
and old generations of journalists, and especially 
between the journalists that served the former 
rulers and those who challenged them. 
Helping to create and sustain a “media of 
reference”
There is a crucial need for one or two quality 
independent media (also in the digital field, 
which is so crucial to reach Arab youth) with a 
strong dedication to professionalism and a clearly 
democratic line that would embody the transition, 
like the Mail & Guardian in South Africa, Pagina 12 
in Argentina and Reforma in Mexico. They could 
serve as a reference/referee for the population, a 
watchdog on/for political actors and an example 
of excellence for the profession.
Reinforcing public service media
State broadcasting, which was “the master’s 
voice”, has to be completely reformed into a 
truly public service system that guarantees 
freedom of expression; political and religious 
pluralism; journalistic impartiality; and 
protection against political, corporate and 
religious intrusion.
Strengthening press ethics
Ethics is an important, but often ill-understood 
issue. It should be seen first and foremost as a 
professional challenge and a test of excellence 
in journalism rather than as a moral or “social 
responsibility” issue.
The call for “responsible journalism” makes 
sense in the delicate, complex and highly volatile 
environment of Arab transitions. There is a 
risk, however, that the elaboration of codes of 
ethics or the creation of press councils might be 
misconceived – by heirs of the fallen regimes and 
by representatives of the new (mostly Islamist) 
majorities – as an alibi to tame the media and 
limit the implementation of international norms of 
freedom of expression.
Promoting respect for diversity and gender 
issues 
One of the key challenges for journalism has always 
been, as the famous U.S. Hutchins Commission 
stated in 1947, to present “a representative 
picture of all the components of the society” that it 
covers. Although this is a highly sensitive subject, 
especially when it is mentioned by foreigners, 
the question of “diversity” is particularly crucial 
in the Maghreb countries. The press should 
give particular attention to providing a balanced 
coverage of cultural, linguistic, religious, gender, 
and other groups and promoting an inclusive 
form of journalism dedicated to combating 
discrimination and racism.
This point is particularly significant in terms of 
gender issues. The media should promote the 
inclusion of women journalists on their staff 
and devote special attention to the coverage of 
women’s issues, with a focus on rights equality.
2. Creating a democratic media  
culture
Creating a democratic media culture also implies 
empowering citizens and providing them with the 
knowledge and tools to understand the role of the 
media, but also helping citizens to be part of the 
democratic conversation by giving them the skills 
to intervene in news flows and public debates.  
Reinforcing “citizen journalism” and media 
literacy
Bloggers have played an active role in the Arab 
revolutions. So-called “citizen journalism” – in 
conjunction or not with established media – 
September 2011 5
Jean-Paul Marthoz The media and freedom of expression in the Arab world
through social networks, blogs or community 
radios should be developed not only as a way 
to circulate information, but also to educate the 
public on the media (media literacy). It could 
be done via the general school system or civic 
associations. Such programmes may also 
contribute to building up a citizens’ constituency 
for the defence of freedom of expression and in 
particular Internet freedom.   
Strengthening NGOs’ communications skills
Civil society organisations are expected to play 
an active role in the new Arab world. They need 
to learn the skills to allow them to communicate 
about their activities and positions, directly or 
through the media. Training leaders, activists 
and communicators from smaller organisations 
working in areas less covered by the media 
(poverty, health, the environment, etc.) would 
help create a more balanced and inclusive press 
coverage.
3. Creating public accountability
Helping state authorities (at all levels) to organise 
an independent public information system that 
breaks with former “information ministries” and 
recognises the public’s right to know should 
complement the work with media professionals. 
Adopting new legislation that formalises public 
accountability and transparency (in particular on 
media ownership) and citizens’ access to public 
information would effectively contribute to the 
creation of a democratic media culture.


The media and freedom of expression in the Arab World

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The media and freedom of expression in the Arab World

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