In Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict, Wolfram Lacher offers a detailed examination of the conflict in Libya, focusing on how the transformation of social ties and the fragmentation of local politics in different communities have played a key role in shaping the country’s trajectory since the overthrow of Qadhafi in 2011. This is a valuable contribution to the literature exploring the transformative effect of violent conflict on communities and is a crucial study for political scientists and scholars seeking to understand how the political and military landscape in Libya has fragmented, writes Burak Kazim Yilmaz. Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict. Wolfram Lacher. Bloomsbury. 2020

Yilmaz, Burak Kazim

English

In Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict, Wolfram Lacher offers a detailed examination of the conflict in Libya, focusing on how the transformation of social ties and the fragmentation of local politics in different communities have played a key role in shaping the country’s trajectory since the overthrow of Qadhafi in 2011. This is a valuable contribution to the literature exploring the transformative effect of violent conflict on communities and is a crucial study for political scientists and scholars seeking to understand how the political and military landscape in Libya has fragmented, writes Burak Kazim Yilmaz

LSE Research Online

Book	Review:	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	andProcess	in	Violent	Conflict	by	Wolfram	LacherIn	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	in	Violent	Conflict,	Wolfram	Lacher	offers	a	detailedexamination	of	the	conflict	in	Libya,	focusing	on	how	the	transformation	of	social	ties	and	the	fragmentation	of	localpolitics	in	different	communities	have	played	a	key	role	in	shaping	the	country’s	trajectory	since	the	overthrowof	Qadhafi	in	2011.	This	is	a	valuable	contribution	to	the	literature	exploring	the	transformative	effect	of	violentconflict	on	communities	and	is	a	crucial	study	for	political	scientists	and	scholars	seeking	to	understand	how	thepolitical	and	military	landscape	in	Libya	has	fragmented,	writes	Burak	Kazim	Yilmaz.Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	in	Violent	Conflict.	Wolfram	Lacher.	Bloomsbury.	2020.Find	this	book	(affiliate	link):	While	it	is	nearly	a	decade-old	conflict,	the	dynamics	of	civil	war	in	Libya	requirecomprehensive	understanding	by	scholars	and	policymakers	seeking	to	address	thesituation.	Wolfram	Lacher’s	book,	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	inViolent	Conflict,	explains	how	the	predicament	in	Libya	has	gradually	emerged	afterthe	toppling	of	Qadhafi’s	regime	in	the	2011	revolution.	Presenting	a	very	detailedbackground	to	the	conflict,	with	a	particular	focus	on	four	different	localities,	Lachermainly	argues	that	it	has	been	the	fragmentation	of	local	politics	within	differentcommunities	that	has	determined	the	country’s	fate.Before	delineating	the	book’s	main	findings,	the	author’s	nine-year	field	research,conducting	over	300	interviews	in	Libyan	Arabic	without	a	translator,	is	worthy	ofpraise.	To	collect	data,	Lacher	travelled	to	different	cities	in	Libya	on	several	occasionsbetween	November	2011	and	February	2019,	even	when	the	risks	of	being	in	andtravelling	between	cities	soared	after	2014.As	the	author	himself	indicates,	in	a	country	where	sources	of	information	are	distorted,	any	document	other	thanthat	obtained	from	the	ground	would	have	been	unreliable	as	the	basis	for	the	book’s	arguments.	Therefore,	theseinterviews	with	interlocutors	–	including	politicians,	businesspeople,	members	of	armed	groups,	tribal	notables	andcivil	society	activists	–	have	great	importance	for	the	sake	of	any	research	on	the	Libyan	civil	war.	Regardinglocalities,	Lacher	chose	to	analyse	the	Nafusa	Mountains,	Bani	Walid	and	Misrata,	which	are	all	located	in	the	west,and	Tobruk,	which	is	in	the	east.	He	explains	the	rationale	behind	this	selection	as	an	effort	to	best	explore	thedifferences	in	terms	of	communities’	varied	exposure	to	and	participation	in	violence	in	2011	(12).In	successfully	conducting	research	in	a	conflict-ridden	country,	this	work	will	not	only	speak	to	scholars	interestedin	Libya	or	the	MENA	region,	but	also	to	those	who	study	violent	conflict	in	general.	Lacher	claims	that	studiesfocusing	on	the	role	of	pre-existing	social	structures	in	civil	wars	‘neglect	the	fact	that	the	onset	of	violencetransforms	social	ties’	(62).	He	emphasises	the	uncertainties	shortly	before	a	civil	war	breaks	out	as	actorsexperience	difficulties	in	positioning	themselves	and	end	up	demonstrating	‘collective	indecision’.	In	such	confusingenvironments,	alignments	are	established	by	the	triggering	effects	of	contingent	events.	Thus,	individual	actionsamid	uncertainties	may	have	a	greater	impact	on	galvanising	people	than	expected.USApp – American Politics and Policy Blog: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 1 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-07Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2021/03/07/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/Regarding	the	Libyan	case,	while	people	were	hesitant	to	choose	whether	to	support	the	revolution	or	to	remainloyal	to	the	Qadhafi	regime	in	the	first	days	of	the	uprising,	it	was	minor	incidents	that	led	to	the	formation	of	armedrebels.	For	example,	in	Misrata,	the	protests	erupted	after	a	member	of	a	prominent	Misratan	family	criticised	theactions	of	regime	forces	against	the	protesters	in	Benghazi.	This	started	the	chain	of	events	that	eventually	forcedregime	forces	to	leave	Misrata	and	made	the	city	a	revolutionary	stronghold.To	grasp	how	violence	transforms	communities,	Lacher	provides	insight	into	how	these	cities	and	regions	wererelated	to	Qadhafi	before	the	revolution	occurred.	Given	this	historical	background,	as	one	of	Lacher’s	interlocutors,a	politician,	states:	‘you	should	have	expected	Misrata	to	back	the	regime,	given	how	much	they	had	benefited	fromit.	Bani	Walid	should	have	risen	up,	given	how	much	it	had	suffered’	(74).	While	Misratans	had	been	highlyrepresented	as	ministers	in	Tripoli	and	its	merchants	worked	with	cronies	of	the	regime,	the	regime	had	repressedBani	Walid	harshly	during	the	1990s.	However,	with	the	outbreak	of	the	civil	war,	Bani	Walid	emerged	as	a	loyalisttown,	whereas	Misrata	became	a	host	for	staunch	supporters	of	the	revolution.Another	theme	that	the	book	focuses	on	extensively	is	the	social	embeddedness	of	armed	groups.	Rather	thanassume	that	armed	groups	represent	separate	entities,	in	Chapter	Three	Lacher	suggests	that	armed	groups	‘aresocially	embedded	or	insulated	from	their	surroundings	to	varying	degrees’	(106).	This	is	the	main	driver	of	theprocess	of	fragmentation,	the	author	argues.	To	the	extent	that	an	armed	group	is	embedded	in	its	community,	itsdecision-making	process	is	under	influence	of	the	community.	This	is	why	in	a	complex	environment	such	as	civilwar,	in	which	groups	frequently	have	to	make	strategic	choices,	being	deeply	embedded	prevents	them	from	actingat	the	expense	of	other	groups’	interests	in	their	communities.	Therefore,	they	cannot	rise	up	to	a	position	of	centralauthority	even	in	their	cities.In	Libya,	fragmentation	has	reached	such	a	degree	that	some	neighbourhoods	have	been	harbouring	differentarmed	groups	and	the	rifts	among	groups	continue	to	widen	as	groups	are	obliged	to	make	new	choices.	Lacherasserts	that	this	tension	between	‘strong	local	social	ties	and	changing	strategic	conditions’	(145)	has	prolonged	thewar	among	different	armed	groups.	In	Misrata,	the	Nafusa	Mountains	and	Bani	Walid,	communities	increased	theirsocial	cohesion	on	different	occasions	in	victories	or	defeats	but	failed	to	maintain	it	once	they	began	to	competeover	access	to	state	institutions	and	resources.	Innumerous	groups	have	desired	political	office	and	otherresources,	all	of	which	are	scarce.USApp – American Politics and Policy Blog: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 2 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-07Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2021/03/07/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/This	framework	also	explains	why	Khalifa	Haftar	–	‘once	an	army	officer	close	to	Qadhafi,	later	his	exiled	opponentwho	after	2011	emerged	as	a	blatantly	power-hungry	warlord’	(2)	–	was	able	to	emerge	as	a	strong	power	centre	ineastern	Libya.	A	close	examination	of	Haftar’s	rise	in	Tobruk	demonstrates	that	the	absence	of	local	cohesiveforces	significantly	contributed	to	his	consolidation	of	power.	Unlike	other	cities	and	regions,	Tobruk	did	notexperience	a	phase	in	which	people	fought	for	toppling	the	regime,	as	in	Misrata	and	Zintan,	or	defending	their	cityas	in	Bani	Walid.	The	city	was	emancipated	from	the	Qadhafi	regime	without	much	effort	and	this	prohibited	theemergence	of	local	cohesive	armed	groups.As	a	result,	when	Haftar	built	an	army	in	the	city,	he	did	not	face	a	rival	also	seeking	power.	Furthermore,	Haftarreceived	strong	support	from	foreign	countries	such	as	Egypt	and	UAE:	‘no	other	Libyan	actor	benefited	fromsupport	even	remotely	comparable	in	magnitude	and	constancy	to	that	available	to	Haftar’	(185).	These	factorsenabled	Haftar	to	disembed	himself	from	social	networks	in	the	east	and	allowed	him	to	strengthen	hisauthority.	Lacher	states	that	Haftar	was	even	able	to	abduct	or	assassinate	his	adversaries	(189-90)	and	eliminatethe	regional	autonomy	movement	without	any	limitations	from	social	networks.In	conclusion,	with	Libya’s	Fragmentation,	Wolfram	Lacher	has	made	a	remarkable	contribution	to	the	literature	oncivil	conflict	and	the	Libyan	civil	war	by	putting	forward	the	transformative	effects	of	violent	conflicts	oncommunities.	His	work	is	crucial	for	political	scientists	and	policymakers	seeking	to	understand	how	the	political	andmilitary	landscape	in	Libya	has	fragmented	and	why	the	actors	are	still	in	dispute	with	each	other.This	article	originally	appeared	at	the	LSE	Review	of	Books.Image	Credit:	(US	Institute	of	Peace	CC	BY	2.0).Please	read	our	comments	policy	before	commenting.	Note:	This	article	gives	the	views	of	the	authors,	and	not	the	position	of	USAPP–	American	Politics	and	Policy,	norof	the	London	School	of	Economics.	Shortened	URL	for	this	post:	https://bit.ly/3c6Fl8nAbout	the	reviewerBurak	Kazim	Yilmaz	–	Bilkent	University,	AnkaraBurak	Kazim	Yilmaz	(@brkzmyilmaz)	is	an	MA	student	in	international	relations	at	Bilkent	University,	Ankara.	Hehas	been	focusing	on	ethnic	conflicts,	domestic	causes	of	wars	and	foreign	policy	analysis.USApp – American Politics and Policy Blog: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 3 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-07Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2021/03/07/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/

Book review: Libya’s fragmentation: structure and process in violent conflict by Wolfram Lacher

Book	Review:	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	andProcess	in	Violent	Conflict	by	Wolfram	LacherIn	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	in	Violent	Conflict,	Wolfram	Lacher	offers	a	detailedexamination	of	the	conflict	in	Libya,	focusing	on	how	the	transformation	of	social	ties	and	the	fragmentation	of	localpolitics	in	different	communities	have	played	a	key	role	in	shaping	the	country’s	trajectory	since	the	overthrowof	Qadhafi	in	2011.	This	is	a	valuable	contribution	to	the	literature	exploring	the	transformative	effect	of	violentconflict	on	communities	and	is	a	crucial	study	for	political	scientists	and	scholars	seeking	to	understand	how	thepolitical	and	military	landscape	in	Libya	has	fragmented,	writes	Burak	Kazim	Yilmaz.Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	in	Violent	Conflict.	Wolfram	Lacher.	Bloomsbury.	2020.Find	this	book	(affiliate	link):	While	it	is	nearly	a	decade-old	conflict,	the	dynamics	of	civil	war	in	Libya	requirecomprehensive	understanding	by	scholars	and	policymakers	seeking	to	address	thesituation.	Wolfram	Lacher’s	book,	Libya’s	Fragmentation:	Structure	and	Process	inViolent	Conflict,	explains	how	the	predicament	in	Libya	has	gradually	emerged	afterthe	toppling	of	Qadhafi’s	regime	in	the	2011	revolution.	Presenting	a	very	detailedbackground	to	the	conflict,	with	a	particular	focus	on	four	different	localities,	Lachermainly	argues	that	it	has	been	the	fragmentation	of	local	politics	within	differentcommunities	that	has	determined	the	country’s	fate.Before	delineating	the	book’s	main	findings,	the	author’s	nine-year	field	research,conducting	over	300	interviews	in	Libyan	Arabic	without	a	translator,	is	worthy	ofpraise.	To	collect	data,	Lacher	travelled	to	different	cities	in	Libya	on	several	occasionsbetween	November	2011	and	February	2019,	even	when	the	risks	of	being	in	andtravelling	between	cities	soared	after	2014.As	the	author	himself	indicates,	in	a	country	where	sources	of	information	are	distorted,	any	document	other	thanthat	obtained	from	the	ground	would	have	been	unreliable	as	the	basis	for	the	book’s	arguments.	Therefore,	theseinterviews	with	interlocutors	–	including	politicians,	businesspeople,	members	of	armed	groups,	tribal	notables	andcivil	society	activists	–	have	great	importance	for	the	sake	of	any	research	on	the	Libyan	civil	war.	Regardinglocalities,	Lacher	chose	to	analyse	the	Nafusa	Mountains,	Bani	Walid	and	Misrata,	which	are	all	located	in	the	west,and	Tobruk,	which	is	in	the	east.	He	explains	the	rationale	behind	this	selection	as	an	effort	to	best	explore	thedifferences	in	terms	of	communities’	varied	exposure	to	and	participation	in	violence	in	2011	(12).In	successfully	conducting	research	in	a	conflict-ridden	country,	this	work	will	not	only	speak	to	scholars	interestedin	Libya	or	the	MENA	region,	but	also	to	those	who	study	violent	conflict	in	general.	Lacher	claims	that	studiesfocusing	on	the	role	of	pre-existing	social	structures	in	civil	wars	‘neglect	the	fact	that	the	onset	of	violencetransforms	social	ties’	(62).	He	emphasises	the	uncertainties	shortly	before	a	civil	war	breaks	out	as	actorsexperience	difficulties	in	positioning	themselves	and	end	up	demonstrating	‘collective	indecision’.	In	such	confusingenvironments,	alignments	are	established	by	the	triggering	effects	of	contingent	events.	Thus,	individual	actionsamid	uncertainties	may	have	a	greater	impact	on	galvanising	people	than	expected.LSE Review of Books: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 1 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-03Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2021/03/03/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/Regarding	the	Libyan	case,	while	people	were	hesitant	to	choose	whether	to	support	the	revolution	or	to	remainloyal	to	the	Qadhafi	regime	in	the	first	days	of	the	uprising,	it	was	minor	incidents	that	led	to	the	formation	of	armedrebels.	For	example,	in	Misrata,	the	protests	erupted	after	a	member	of	a	prominent	Misratan	family	criticised	theactions	of	regime	forces	against	the	protesters	in	Benghazi.	This	started	the	chain	of	events	that	eventually	forcedregime	forces	to	leave	Misrata	and	made	the	city	a	revolutionary	stronghold.To	grasp	how	violence	transforms	communities,	Lacher	provides	insight	into	how	these	cities	and	regions	wererelated	to	Qadhafi	before	the	revolution	occurred.	Given	this	historical	background,	as	one	of	Lacher’s	interlocutors,a	politician,	states:	‘you	should	have	expected	Misrata	to	back	the	regime,	given	how	much	they	had	benefited	fromit.	Bani	Walid	should	have	risen	up,	given	how	much	it	had	suffered’	(74).	While	Misratans	had	been	highlyrepresented	as	ministers	in	Tripoli	and	its	merchants	worked	with	cronies	of	the	regime,	the	regime	had	repressedBani	Walid	harshly	during	the	1990s.	However,	with	the	outbreak	of	the	civil	war,	Bani	Walid	emerged	as	a	loyalisttown,	whereas	Misrata	became	a	host	for	staunch	supporters	of	the	revolution.Another	theme	that	the	book	focuses	on	extensively	is	the	social	embeddedness	of	armed	groups.	Rather	thanassume	that	armed	groups	represent	separate	entities,	in	Chapter	Three	Lacher	suggests	that	armed	groups	‘aresocially	embedded	or	insulated	from	their	surroundings	to	varying	degrees’	(106).	This	is	the	main	driver	of	theprocess	of	fragmentation,	the	author	argues.	To	the	extent	that	an	armed	group	is	embedded	in	its	community,	itsdecision-making	process	is	under	influence	of	the	community.	This	is	why	in	a	complex	environment	such	as	civilwar,	in	which	groups	frequently	have	to	make	strategic	choices,	being	deeply	embedded	prevents	them	from	actingat	the	expense	of	other	groups’	interests	in	their	communities.	Therefore,	they	cannot	rise	up	to	a	position	of	centralauthority	even	in	their	cities.In	Libya,	fragmentation	has	reached	such	a	degree	that	some	neighbourhoods	have	been	harbouring	differentarmed	groups	and	the	rifts	among	groups	continue	to	widen	as	groups	are	obliged	to	make	new	choices.	Lacherasserts	that	this	tension	between	‘strong	local	social	ties	and	changing	strategic	conditions’	(145)	has	prolonged	thewar	among	different	armed	groups.	In	Misrata,	the	Nafusa	Mountains	and	Bani	Walid,	communities	increased	theirsocial	cohesion	on	different	occasions	in	victories	or	defeats	but	failed	to	maintain	it	once	they	began	to	competeover	access	to	state	institutions	and	resources.	Innumerous	groups	have	desired	political	office	and	otherresources,	all	of	which	are	scarce.LSE Review of Books: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 2 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-03Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2021/03/03/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/This	framework	also	explains	why	Khalifa	Haftar	–	‘once	an	army	officer	close	to	Qadhafi,	later	his	exiled	opponentwho	after	2011	emerged	as	a	blatantly	power-hungry	warlord’	(2)	–	was	able	to	emerge	as	a	strong	power	centre	ineastern	Libya.	A	close	examination	of	Haftar’s	rise	in	Tobruk	demonstrates	that	the	absence	of	local	cohesiveforces	significantly	contributed	to	his	consolidation	of	power.	Unlike	other	cities	and	regions,	Tobruk	did	notexperience	a	phase	in	which	people	fought	for	toppling	the	regime,	as	in	Misrata	and	Zintan,	or	defending	their	cityas	in	Bani	Walid.	The	city	was	emancipated	from	the	Qadhafi	regime	without	much	effort	and	this	prohibited	theemergence	of	local	cohesive	armed	groups.As	a	result,	when	Haftar	built	an	army	in	the	city,	he	did	not	face	a	rival	also	seeking	power.	Furthermore,	Haftarreceived	strong	support	from	foreign	countries	such	as	Egypt	and	UAE:	‘no	other	Libyan	actor	benefited	fromsupport	even	remotely	comparable	in	magnitude	and	constancy	to	that	available	to	Haftar’	(185).	These	factorsenabled	Haftar	to	disembed	himself	from	social	networks	in	the	east	and	allowed	him	to	strengthen	hisauthority.	Lacher	states	that	Haftar	was	even	able	to	abduct	or	assassinate	his	adversaries	(189-90)	and	eliminatethe	regional	autonomy	movement	without	any	limitations	from	social	networks.In	conclusion,	with	Libya’s	Fragmentation,	Wolfram	Lacher	has	made	a	remarkable	contribution	to	the	literature	oncivil	conflict	and	the	Libyan	civil	war	by	putting	forward	the	transformative	effects	of	violent	conflicts	oncommunities.	His	work	is	crucial	for	political	scientists	and	policymakers	seeking	to	understand	how	the	political	andmilitary	landscape	in	Libya	has	fragmented	and	why	the	actors	are	still	in	dispute	with	each	other.Note:	This	review	gives	the	views	of	the	author,	and	not	the	position	of	the	LSE	Review	of	Books	blog,	or	of	theLondon	School	of	Economics.	The	LSE	RB	blog	may	receive	a	small	commission	if	you	choose	to	make	a	purchasethrough	the	above	Amazon	affiliate	link.	This	is	entirely	independent	of	the	coverage	of	the	book	on	LSE	Review	ofBooks.Image	Credit:	(US	Institute	of	Peace	CC	BY	2.0).	LSE Review of Books: Book Review: Libya’s Fragmentation: Structure and Process in Violent Conflict by Wolfram Lacher Page 3 of 3		Date originally posted: 2021-03-03Permalink: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2021/03/03/book-review-libyas-fragmentation-structure-and-process-in-violent-conflict-by-wolfram-lacher/Blog homepage: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/

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Book review: Libya’s fragmentation: structure and process in violent conflict by Wolfram Lacher

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