When we submitted our work in progress (WiP) paper, “Game of Drones,”1 to the ACM SIGCHI Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY) in 2015, we had no idea whether we’d be derided or praised. The paper presented a fictional account of the Game of Drones research project, which never actually happened. While it might be surprising to some that such a paper passed review and was accepted, it’s important to understand that the intent behind the paper wasn’t subversive; rather, we wanted to produce new knowledge. The purpose of the Game of Drones project was dual to explore a potential future use of drones for civic enforcement activities and advance a program for developing design fiction as a research method. Here, we highlight the enormous potential of design fiction by covering both how drones helped us develop a design fiction, and how design fiction helped us highlight wider issues related to the design of a drone-based system

Coulton, Paul

Lindley, Joseph Galen

Lancaster E-Prints

Design	Fiction:	Anticipating	Adoption		Paul	Coulton	and	Joe	Lindley	Introduction		When	we	submitted	our	‘work	in	progress’	(WiP)	paper	Game	of	Drones	[1],	to	‘CHI	Play’	in	2015,	we	had	no	idea	whether	we	would	be	derided	or	praised,	as	Game	of	Drones	is	a	fictional	account	of	a	research	project	that	had	never	actually	happened.	Whilst	it	may	be	surprising	to	some	that	such	a	paper	passed	review	and	was	even	accepted,	it	is	important	to	understand	the	intent	behind	this	paper	was	not	subversive	but	rather	to	produce	new	knowledge	[2].	The	purpose	of	this	project	was	dual:	we	wanted	to	explore	a	potential	future	use	of	drones	for	civic	enforcement	activities	and	also	to	progress	a	programme	of	research	that	aims	to	develop	Design	Fiction	as	a	research	method.	In	this	tutorial	we	endeavour	to	highlight	the	enormous	potential	of	Design	Fiction	by	covering	both	facets:	how	the	drones	helped	us	develop	a	Design	Fiction,	and	how	Design	Fiction	helped	us	to	highlight	the	wider	issues	relating	to	design	of	such	a	drone-based	system.		The	term	‘drone’	covers	a	broad	range	of	unmanned	aerial	vehicles,	but	it	is	the	proliferation	of	small	quadcopters	for	personal	use	that	has	made	them	prominent	in	the	public	consciousness.	Multi-rotor	copters	come	with	sophisticated	flight	controllers	and	on-board	sensors	which	make	them	ever-easier	to	control.	Their	ease-of-use	and	relatively	low	cost	have	facilitated	a	huge	range	of	controversial,	sometimes	amusing,	and	often	innovative	applications.	For	example,	delivering	drugs	to	prison	inmates,	a	platform	for	espionage,	flying	cats	and	Halloween	ghosts,	a	plethora	of	photographic	applications,	aerial	light	painting	and	competitive	first-person	view	drone	racing.	Amazon’s	Prime	Air,	Facebook’s	internet	drone,	and	a	huge	range	of	wildlife	conservation	drones	are	further	examples	of	innovative	commercial,	corporate,	and	research	uses	of	the	same	technologies.	What	these	activities	demonstrate	is	that	while	there	is	a	high	degree	of	‘interpretive	flexibility’	around	drone	technologies	their	full	significance	for	society	has	not	‘stabilised’	as	they	have	yet	to	be	‘domesticated’	and	adopted	into	wide	spread	practices.			Bell	&	Dourish	highlighted	that	‘we’	(technology	researchers)	have	a	penchant	for	suggesting	that	the	actual	adoption	of	the	technologies	we	research	is	‘just	out	of	reach’	or	‘around	the	corner’,	and	that	considering	how	this	is	achieved,	or	possible	unexpected	consequences,	is	left	as	someone	else’s	problem	[3].	Of	course,	researchers	are	not	able	to	fully	envisage	the	gamut	of	potential	futures	for	emerging	technologies	but	this	doesn’t	mean	we	shouldn’t	try.	Design	Fiction	is	an	approach	that	can	help	us	to	shift	our	gaze	from	the	foreground	of	the	present,	to	the	horizon	of	the	future,	and	then	back	again.	Having	glimpsed	possible	futures,	we	can	be	better	prepared	to	consider	the	broader	range	of	societal	implications.	Therefore,	Design	Fiction	is	not	about	predicting	the	future	or	creating	utopian	visions	that	promote	emerging	technologies,	instead	it	provides	a	means	to	explore	the	societal,	technological,	and	political	nuances	of	possible	futures	so	that	we	can	better	understand	our	present.	Drone	technology,	along	with	Internet	of	Things,	Smart	Cities,	and	Autonomous	Automobiles,	are	on	the	cusp	of	widespread	adoption,	they	are	at	a	peak	of	expectation,	and	hence	examining	proximate	futures	that	plausibly	extend	from	today’s	present	is	particularly	relevant	for	these	technologies.	In	the	example	used	here,	Game	of	Drones,	we	were	interested	in	exploring	a	drone-based	gamified	civic	enforcement	system.	We	wanted	to	understand	what	the	technological	and	legal	challenges	of	such	a	system	would	be,	and	to	ask	whether	such	a	system	would	be	an	acceptable	proposition	and	to	start	a	discourse	that	starts	to	unpack	the	ethical	and	societal	questions	relating	to	such	a	system’s	adoption.	Design	Fiction	We	have	come	to	see	Design	Fiction	as	a	world	building	exercise.	By	creating	a	series	of	speculative	artefacts,	the	worlds	that	these	artefacts	inhabit	spring	into	life.	Given	life,	these	fictional	worlds	provide	a	prototyping	medium	for	the	designed	artefacts	which	define	them,	meanwhile	the	designs	reciprocate	by	prototyping	the	world	itself.		We	propose	two	metaphors	for	describing	how	the	individual	artefacts	relate	to	the	world.	First,	let’s	imagine	a	Design	Fiction	world	as	a	distinct	entity,	one	that	we	can	see	the	overall	shape	of,	but	whose	complex	internal	structure	is	hidden	from	view.	What	we	can	see,	however,	is	a	series	‘entry	points’.	Each	artefact	that	contributes	to	making	up	the	Design	Fiction	acts	as	a	metaphorical	entry	point	to	the	fictional	world	as	shown	in	figure	1.	The	second	metaphor,	is	inspired	by	Charles	and	Ray	Eames’	film	about	relative	size	of	things	in	the	Universe,	‘Powers	of	10’.	The	film	shows	a	number	of	frames	of	reference	(literally	drawn	as	squares	in	the	film)	which	begin	with	a	1	meter	squared	section	of	an	image	that	includes	a	couple	sitting	having	a	picnic,	but	then	zooming	out	and	increasing	the	visible	area	by	one	power	of	10	every	10	seconds.	Within	1	minute	the	image	shows	a	view	of	Earth	from	outer	space,	3	minutes	later	and	the	frame	has	zoomed	out	far	enough	to	show	the	entire	observable	Universe.	Although	we	are	not	suggesting	adherence	to	the	configuration	‘1	power	of	10	per	10	seconds’,	the	basic	concept	can	be	applied	to	Design	Fiction	worlds	and	the	artefacts	that	create	them.	We	can	think	of	each	individual	artefact	that	constructs	the	world	as	a	representation	of	that	world,	but	at	a	different	scale	or	‘power	of	10’	(see	figure	1).	Entry	points	at	varying	scales	makes	the	artefacts	that	construct	them,	and	design	fiction	worlds	themselves,	incredibly	flexible.	However,	it	is	their	situated	character	that	makes	Design	Fiction	such	a	powerful	tool.	The	technique	goes	beyond	just	exploring	the	utility,	usability	or	technical	requirements	for	a	specific	technology	but	instead	takes	all	of	these	factors	into	account,	and	at	the	same	time	places	people	at	the	heart	of	the	scenarios,	and	does	so	with	technologies	or	systems	that	are	not	currently	in	existence.		But	what	about	the	drones?	The	world	we	built	for	Game	of	Drones	was	constructed	using	a	variety	of	artefacts	and	then	the	whole	‘world’	was	packaged	into	the	submitted	paper.	The	WiP	paper	format	provided	the	opportunity	to	focus	on	individual	elements	of	the	system	and	write	about	how	they	fitted	together,	as	opposed	to	needing	to	create	believable	results.	The	structure	of	the	paper	also	allowed	us	to	evaluate	whether	our	imaginary	world	was	plausible	to	the	communities	developing	such	technologies,	rather	than	creating	a	vision	that	is	clearly	fictional	and	might	easily	be	dismissed	as	science	fiction.	By	adhering	to	a	normal	paper	structure	we	rendered	a	‘future	mundane’,	in	which	drones	are	an	everyday	part	of	the	urban	landscape.	The	paper	describes	a	user	trial	of	the	Drone	Enforcement	System	(DES)	in	which	drones	are	used	to	provide	enforcement	services	to	local	authorities.	Specifically,	it	presents	a	‘gamified’	system,	which	allowed	retired	members	of	the	police	and	armed	services	to	act	as	remote	drone	pilots	helping	to	enforce	by-laws	relating	to	parking	offences	and	dog	fouling	in	a	small	UK	city.	The	whole	interaction	takes	place	through	a	game-like	interface	and	points	are	awarded	to	pilots	for	recording	activity,	and	ultimately,	catching	other	citizens	infringing	upon	the	rules.	Alongside	the	paper	we	submitted	a	supporting	video	which	comprised	of	real	footage	recorded	from	a	drone	but	was	composited	with	a	game-like	interface	and	claimed	–	fictionally	–	to	show	the	system	‘in	the	wild’	(figure	2).	In	the	following	paragraphs	we	will	discuss	important	elements	that	shaped	the	design	of	the	system	presented	in	the	paper	and	video.			Your	user	trial	is	illegal?	Rewrite	the	law	Within	current	UK	legislation	the	adoption	of	commercial	services,	such	as	the	one	described	in	Game	of	Drones,	would	be	unfeasible	because	of	Civil	Aviation	Authority	Protocol	658	(Article	167)	which	governs	small	unmanned	surveillance	aircraft	of	less	than	7Kg	in	weight.	In	particular,	the	article	stipulates	that,	currently,	drones	must	not	be	flown	within	50	meters	of	any	person,	structure	or	vehicle	and	when	flown	via	a	First	Person	View	(FPV)	camera	on	the	drone,	they	are	required	to	adopt	a	‘Buddy	Box’	system	whereby	another	person	maintains	a	line	of	site	view	and	can	take	over	control	of	the	drone	if	required.	Within	the	realms	of	our	fictional	world,	we	therefore	had	to	consider	a	future	in	which	this	article	no	longer	applied	and	thus	superseded	Article	167	with	our	own	law	that	allows	remote	FPV	flight	for	users	in	possession	of	a	‘Drone	Pilot	Proficiency	Certificate’	within	certain	height	and	distance	limitations.	Although	only	part	of	our	more	comprehensive	Design	Fiction	world,	this	change	in	legislation	is	a	Design	Fiction	prototype	in	its	own	right,	and	was	arguably	a	portend	to	the	US	Federal	Aviation	Administration’s	subsequent	implementation	of	compulsory	drone	registration	and	mandatory	certification	for	commercial	pilots.			Need	to	recharge	your	drone?	Design	a	docking	station	A	number	of	technical	details	about	hardware	are	included	in	Game	of	Drones,	most	notably;	a	contemporarily	available	consumer	model	of	a	drone	and	camera	(cited	as	being	used	in	the	trial),	as	well	as	a	sketch	of	the	docking	station	design	(figure	3),	photographs	of	signage	(figure	4),	and	a	diagram	of	the	control	device.	While	the	drone	hardware	primarily	played	a	supporting	role	in	the	Design	Fiction,	it	allowed	us	to	consider	how	current	their	current	capabilities	would	impact	upon	the	proposed	system	design.	With	this	in	mind	the	drone	docking	station	was	designed	based	on	a	real	type	of	lamppost	(figure	2)	and	would	have	been	a	necessary	part	of	the	infrastructure	for	this	system	due	to	the	limited	flight	time	of	these	battery	powered	vehicles.	To	further	bolster	the	plausibility	of	the	fiction	we	incorporated	wireless	charging	technology	(citing	real	research)	into	the	docking	stations	and,	because	it	would	be	necessary	to	make	landing	on	the	docking	stations	far	simpler,	we	incorporated	automatic	landing	beacons.	We	note	that	subsequent	to	writing	the	paper,	Amazon	were	filed	for	patent	US009387928	in	July	2016	which	describes	a	remarkably	similar	lamppost-based	docking	station	for	drones	to	the	one	we	proposed.			Drone-zone	signs,	or	it	didn’t	happen.	A	number	of	extra	details	were	added	about	the	trial,	all	of	which	were	intended	to	be	reminiscent	of	reality,	but	with	twists	for	the	Game	of	Drones	world	applied	to	them.	These	all	add	further	to	the	Design	Fiction’s	plausibility,	but	also	act	as	cultural	triggers	to	spark	meaningful	discussion.	Most	of	us	are	familiar	with	parking	or	dog	fouling	notices,	hence,	we	made	real	‘Drone	Enforcement	Zone’	signs	(figure	3)	that	utilize	the	official	UK	font	for	road	signage.	In	addition,	real	GIS	data	was	used	to	construct	a	map	of	the	trial	city,	complete	with	enforcement	zones	(based	upon	existing	city	council	maps	of	parking	zones)	and	landing	stations	placed	to	facilitate	coverage	based	on	our	flight	distance	restrictions	and	practical	recharging.	Programmatically	enforced	no-fly	zones	are	mentioned	for	special	areas	such	as	the	railway	line	to	acknowledge	current	discourses	about	the	potential	hazards	caused	by	drones.	Finally,	we	claimed	that	the	trial	participants	were	ex-service	(police	and	military)	personnel,	as	they	would	likely	have	a	diligent	approach	to	enforcement.	A	note	about	financial	rewards	suggests	that	for	this	iteration	of	the	system,	users	are	not	financially	rewarded	for	recording	more	infringements,	hinting	at	the	possible	ethical	dilemmas	of	gamifying	enforcement.	It	might	seem	that	we	went	to	a	lot	of	trouble	for	such	small	details	but	we	believe	they	add	important	texture	to	the	fictional	world,	making	it	appear	more	plausible,	and	in	doing	so	aim	to	stimulate	more	meaningful	discourse.	For	instance,	“the	drone	pilots	are	also	encouraged	to	record	any	activity	they	consider	‘unusual’	to	ascertain	the	use	of	drones	has	potential	for	crime	prevention	beyond	enforcement	activities”	[1]	could	suggest	to	some	visions	of	a	‘big	brother’	style	dystopia,	while	for	others	it	may	be	reminiscent	of	Neighborhood	Watch	schemes.	This	ambiguity	is	deliberate	and	done	with	the	aim	of	encouraging	discussion	about	the	desirability	of	such	systems	and	their	effect	on	society.	Conclusions		Game	of	Drones	builds	a	fictional	world	in	which	drones	are	used	as	part	of	a	gamified	civic	enforcement	system.	It	does	so	convincingly	enough	that	two	out	of	three	of	the	reviewers	seemed	to	believe	it	was	real	despite	our	admission	in	the	paper’s	conclusion	that	it	was	part	of	a	Design	Fiction,	and	therefore	a	‘fictional	account’	[2].		This	level	of	acceptance,	despite	the	evidence,	is	fascinating,	not	because	of	the	misinterpretation	but	because	it	demonstrates	how	powerful	technological	visions	of	the	future	even	to	those	shaping	such	futures	and,	in	this	particular	case,	that	not	only	is	the	proposed	drone-based	enforcement	system	plausible,	it	also	seems	to	be	feasible.	It	could	(and	likely	will)	become	reality.	If	this	is	the	case,	it	is	important	to	have	wider	discussions	about	the	prospect	now.	Overall,	we	assert	that	the	technique	demonstrated	in	this	tutorial,	Design	Fiction,	is	becoming	an	increasingly	relevant	approach	for	designers	and	researchers	through	which	to	explore	the	wider	implications	of	adopting	emerging	technologies	of	all	kinds,	the	Internet	of	Things,	synthetic	biology,	nanotechnology,	and	–	of	course	–	drones.	Acknowledgements	This	spotlight	has	been	made	possible	through	the	support	of	the	RCUK	Cyber	Security	for	the	Internet	of	Things	Research	Hub	PETRAS	(petrashub.org)	under	EPSRC	grant	EP/N02334X/1.	References		[1]	 JOSEPH	LINDLEY	AND	PAUL	COULTON.	2015.	GAME	OF	DRONES.	IN	PROCEEDINGS	OF	THE	2015	ANNUAL	SYMPOSIUM	ON	COMPUTER-HUMAN	INTERACTION	IN	PLAY	(CHI	PLAY	'15).	ACM,	NEW	YORK,	NY,	USA,	613-618.	DOI:	HTTP://DX.DOI.ORG/10.1145/2793107.2810300			[2]	 JOSEPH	LINDLEY	AND	PAUL	COULTON.	2016.	PUSHING	THE	LIMITS	OF	DESIGN	FICTION:	THE	CASE	FOR	FICTIONAL	RESEARCH	PAPERS.	IN	PROCEEDINGS	OF	THE	2016	CHI	CONFERENCE	ON	HUMAN	FACTORS	IN	COMPUTING	SYSTEMS	(CHI	'16).	ACM,	NEW	YORK,	NY,	USA,	4032-4043.	DOI:	HTTP://DX.DOI.ORG/10.1145/2858036.2858446	 [3] GENEVIEVE	BELL	AND	PAUL	DOURISH.	2007.	YESTERDAY’S	TOMORROWS:	NOTES	ON	UBIQUITOUS	COMPUTING’S	DOMINANT	VISION.	PERSONAL	UBIQUITOUS	COMPUT.	11,	2	(JANUARY	2007),	133-143.	DOI=HTTP://DX.DOI.ORG/10.1007/S00779-006-0071-X    Figure	2.	Design	Fiction	World	Building	   Figure	2.	Screenshots	from	Game	of	Drones	Video	(https://youtu.be/6b_30d7yW2s)			Figure	3.	Drone	Docking	Station				Figure	4.	Drone	Enforcement	Zone	Signage				Additional	Image	Game	of	Drones	Logo			

Design fiction : anticipating adoption

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Design fiction:anticipating adoption

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