Twenty three samples of water were collected randomly from dams: ND1, ND2 (fenced), ND14 (open) and ND13 hafir in Northern Darfur (ND)

Agab, Muna Ahmed

Eltiny, Ahmed Hassan

Karrar, Osama Seed Ahmed

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 International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR)  ISSN 2307-4531 (Print & Online)  http://gssrr.org/index.php?journal=JournalOfBasicAndApplied --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Physico- chemical Assessment of Drinking Water in Northern and Southern Darfur Osama Karrar a*, Muna Agab b, Ahmed Eltiny c a U of K, Sudan present   b Food Research Centre, Sudan c U of K, Faculty of Agriculture a Email: Osamafas@hotmail.com  Abstract Twenty three samples of water were collected randomly from dams: ND1, ND2 (fenced), ND14 (open) and ND13 hafir in Northern Darfur (ND).  Southern Darfur (SD) samples included Wadi Nyala SD3 and Rahads SD6, SD7 and SD8 Hafir for physico –chemical analysis: pH, conductivity, TDS, hardness and N – NH3. pH analysis showed a range of 6.2 – 7.8 for all samples which was similar to 6.5 -8.7 of WHO. Low conductivity less than 250µs/cm of WHO 90 µs/cm was reported for Wadi Nyala SD3, 157 µs/cm for Rahad SD7, 195 µs/cm for SD8 hafir and 220 µs/cm for ND1dam, 290 µs/cm for SD6 Rahad, 300 µs/cm for ND2 dam. Higher values compared to WHO (350 µs/cm) were recorded for ND14 and ND1 (370 µs/cm ). Analysis showed a low TDS of 9 mg /L for Wadi Nyala SD3. Higher values of TDS were recorded for other samples (3700 mg/L – 4000 mg/L) compared to WHO (150 mg/L- 500 mg/L). The lowest hardness was reported 20 mg/L of CaCO3 for SD7 while the highest 180 mg/L for ND14 compared with WHO 500 mg/L. N – NH3  was nil in ND1 and ND2,  while N- NH3 1.6 mg/L for ND14 and SD3 similar to WHO values 1.5 mg/L. other sample showed higher values ranging 2.3 mg/L to 3.01 mg/L. Keywords: Physico- chemical; Drinking water; Northern and Sothern Darfur.     ------------------------------------------------------------------------ * Corresponding author.  438  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  1. Introduction The importance of water for humans, animals and agriculture had been recognized by local, regional and international organizations. Misuse of management of water resources lead to pollution or contamination of streams, lakes, surface- water sources: since there is a constant interchange between underground and surface- water [1]. The lack of good quality water leads to water- borne diseases.  Up to six million deaths per year is due to contaminated water [2].  The author in reference [3] reported that the death of most African children less than five year of age was due to inadequate and unsafe water supply. The authors in reference [4] stated that monitoring the quality of water and applying corrective measures before usage is very important. The authors in reference [5, 6, 7] established guide-lines for physico- chemical parameters for drinking water. The authors in reference [8] found that there was an inverse relationship between TDS in drinking water and incidence of cancer. The author [14] reported that total mortality of cardio-vascular rate was inversely correlated with TDS levels in drinking water. Similar results were reported by the authors in reference [9]. The author in reference [10] evaluating physico- chemical parameters of harvested stored drinking water Hafir in North West Kordufan. He reported pH 7.2- 7.9, conductivity 29.3 µs/cm- 244.3 µs/cm, TDS 25mg/L -373 mg/L and hardness 3mg/L- 150 mg/L. Also he noted that pH values are similar to WHO values, while conductivity, TDS and hardness values were lower than WHO. No seasonal differences in TDS were observed between summer and autumn. The authors in reference [11] cited by the author in reference [10] classified water as: ground water, springs, running water and standing water (lakes, lagoons, ponds, swamps and temporary waters). In nature water is constantly change from form to another. In the Sudan the main sources of water are: the Nile and its tributaries streams (Wadies) ground water, wells, deep-bores, harvested rain water catchment (natural or man-made) hafirs. Man-made dams closed or open.  Information of physico- chemical properties of hafirs, dams and Wadi waters in Northern and Southern Darfur states is lacking.  The objectives of this study are: • Assessment of physico- chemical properties of drinking water of dams, Rahads, hafirs and wadies of Northern and Southern Darfur states.  • Preparation of base-line data for planners of water resources development and management. • Suggestion of ways and means of improvement of water production, quantity and quality. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 study area 1. Northern Darfur State (ND). 2. Southern Darfur State (SD) 439  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  2.2 Drinking water sources 2.2.1 Dam It is a man- made barrier to obstruct flow of water across a flowing water source. It is dig to increase its holding capacity. Dams in Darfur region are either fenced or open. 2.2.2 Hafir  It is a man-made reservoir for harvesting rain water. Its capacity varies according to location. It may be open or closed. 2.2.3 Khor or Wadi  It is a seasonal running stream with gravel, sand or mud bed. It is used as drinking water. Surface shallow wells are usually hand- bored for obtaining drinking water. 2.2.4 Rahad Rahad is a large natural and permanent source of water for drinking and live- stock. It is open. 2.3 Sampling  Twenty three samples were collected at random from eight sights of dams, wadies and hafirs s shown in table (1) and table (2). Table 1: Northern Darfur state Sampling Location sites     Sample No                                        Location                                              Source of Supply            ND1                            Golo twined Dam (Raw water) Fenced                  Rain water            ND2                            Golo Dam Fenced                                                   Rain water            ND13                          Hafir Jadeed Alsail open                                        Rain water            ND14                           Maleet Dam (Raw water) open                             Rain water Table 2: Southern Darfur state Sampling Location sites                Sample No                                             Location                                      Source of Supply               SD3                                          Wadi Nyala surface well  (1)                    Rain water               SD6                                          Rahad Manwashi open                              Rain water               SD7                                          Rahad Goz Badeen  open                          Rain water               SD8                                          Yau – Yau kashalango Hafir open            Rain water  440  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  Analyses Physical and chemical analyses were carried out at site using portable Hach instruments. The physical parameters included: pH, conductivity, TDS and turbidity. They are shown in table (3). Table 3: physical parameters  Parameter              Feature                             Instrument                        Method               Regulatory reporting   PH                      Physical.           Hach Method No-8156                Electrode Method                 EPA approved  Conductivity      physical            Hach conductivity TDS meter      Direct measurement                                                                                                         Hach Method 8160                EPA approved TDS                   physical                            Do                               Direct measurement               EPA approved  Turbidity            physical Hach UV-vis   (NTU)               DR/ 4000   Spectro-                                            Hach method No 10047                            photometer 860Hach                                            (Direct reading)                      USEPA approved                             programs 357           Chemical parameters: hardness as CaCo3, Nitrogen (N) as Ammonia (NH3) as shown in table (4)   Table 4: chemical parameters Parameter                     Feature                  Instrument                                Method                             Regulatory report Total Hardness  as Ca Co3 mg/L            Chemical       Hach digital Titrator + Man       Titration method Hach                                                             Ver 2 hardness indicator powder        method No 8213           USEPA approved  Nitrogen as Ammonia  (NH3)                            Chemical        Hach DR/700 colorimeter        Nesseler method, Hach         USEPA approved                                                                method No 803                         (Nesseler Reagent )                                                                                                                         (2mL/test)                                                                 3. Results  Northern Darfur (ND). The results of physico-chemical analysis of (ND) are presented in table (5).  441  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446   Table 5: physico-chemical analysis of (ND) WHO            pH             Conductivity       TDS               Hardness              (N-NH3) mg/L  (1993)         6.5-8.5         350µs/cm     150-500 mg/L      500 mg/L            1.5mg/L Source              Sample No     PH     Conductivity         TDS mg/L               Total Hardness           (N-NH3) mg/L                                                                µs/cm                                                        as CaCO3  Golo Dam                     ND1         7.8        220                      2000                              130                             Nil           Golo                              ND2         7.4       300                       2400                              100                             Nil Maleet Dam                 ND14       6.7       370                       3200                              180                             1.6 Jadeed Alsail Hafir     ND13       6.9       370                       3700                              110                             2.6 The results of physico-chemical analysis of Southern Darfur are represented in table (6) Table 6: physico-chemical analysis of (SD)  Physical analysis 1. pH  Results of pH are presented in tables 5 and 6. High pH values 7.8, 7.4, 6.7and 6.9 are observed in Northern WHO            pH             Conductivity       TDS               Hardness              (N-NH3) mg/L  (1993)         6.5-8.5         350µs/cm     150-500 mg/L      500 mg/L            1.5mg/L Source               Sample No        PH       Conductivity         TDS mg/L               Total Hardness           (N-NH3)                                                                      µs/cm                                                           as CaCO3               mg/L    Khor Nyala (wadi)        SD3         7.1           90                       9                                   31                            1.6         Manwashi Rahad          SD6         6.2           290                      4000                            35                            2.8 Goz Badeen Rahd          SD7       6.5           175                       2400                            20                            3.0 Yau- Yau Kashalango              Hafir                  SD8       6.3           195                      2700                              28                           2.3 442  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  Darfur: ND1, ND2, ND14 and ND13 respectively. Results indicated lower values of pH in Southern Darfur: SD3 (7.1), SD6 (6.2), SD7 (6.5) and SD8 (6.3). All of the pH values were between the range reported by WHO (6.5-8.3). The author in reference [10] studying physico- chemical parameters of Hafir in Western Kordufan range 7.4- 7.8 in summer and 7.2- 7.9 in autumn. No significant difference was observed between seasons. 2. Conductivity  Conductivity (EC) in drinking water in micro simens per cm (µs/cm) of samples are shown in table 5 and 6. Results showed highest conductivity recorded in Maleet dam (ND14) and Jadeed Alsail Hafir (ND13) 370µs/cm and 300µs/cm for Golo Dam (ND2). While the lowest conductivity found in SD3 (90 µs/cm), SD7 (175 µs/cm), SD8 (195 µs/cm), ND1 (220 µs/cm) and SD6 (290 µs/cm) compared with WHO (350 µs/cm). The author in reference [10] reported conductivity range of 160- 244.3 µs/cm in Hafir in summer and 159.3– 184.9 µs/cm in autumn in west northern Kordufan area. The lowest conductivity 90 µs/cm was observed for Khor Nyala may be due to its gravel bed which acted as a natural filter or the presence of total concentration of ions, mobility and valence in water. i. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)  Results of TDS were presented in tables 5 and 6, and fig. 1. The highest TDS (4000 mg/L) compared to WHO value 500mg/L was reported in Rahad Manwashi SD6, 3700mg/L in Hafir ND13 Jadeed Alsail,  3200 mg/L Maleet Dam Nd14, 2700 mg/L in Yau- Yau Kashalango Hafir SD8, 2400 mg/L in ND2 Golo Dam and  Goz Badeen Rahad SD7, 2000 mg/L in ND1 Golo. The lowest TDS less than 500mg/L reported 9 mg/L in Khor Nyala SD3. It is noticed that Khor Nyala has low TDS (9mg/L), low conductivity (90µs/cm) and low ammonia (1.6mg/L). Hussein 2008 reported TDS 25mg/L- 320 mg/L for Hafirs in west Kordufan. Both lowest values are within the WHO values limits (500mg/L). The author in reference [12] stated that water low in TDS is defined as water containing 1- 1oomg/L. it is the quality of water obtained from distillation, reverse osmosis and deionization. The author in reference [13] did not put low limit for TDS for drinking water. Also declared that the concentration from natural sources have been found to vary from less than 30mg/L to as much as 6000mg/L, depending on the solubilities of minerals in different geological regions. They showed also that the palatability of drinking water has been rated by panels of tasters in relation to its TDS level as follows: excellent, less than300 mg/L; good, between 300 and 600 mg/L; fair, between 600 and 900 mg/L; poor, between 900 and 1200 mg/L; and unacceptable, greater than 1200 mg/L. Water with extremely low concentrations of TDS may also be unacceptable because of its flat, insipid taste.  The authors in reference [2] found that there was an inverse relationship between TDS in drinking water and incidence of cancer. The author in reference [14] reported that total mortality of cardio-vascular rate was 443  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  inversely correlated with TDS levels in drinking water. Similar results were reported by authors in reference [9, 3] that the death of most African children under five year of age was due to inadequate and unsafe water supply. Up to six million deaths per year is due to contaminated water [2].  Figure 1: Northern and Southern Darfur TDS of Dams, Rahads, Wadies and Hafirs  Figure 2: Northern and Southern Darfur NH3 of Dams, Rahads, Wadies and Hafirs Chemical analysis 1. Hardness  The results of chemical analysis of hardness as CaCO3 mg/L were presented in table 5 and 6. All Dams, Hafirs and Rahads, and Khor Nyala showed values lower than WHO (500mg/L). Southern Darfur values of hardness range between 20- 35 mg/L; while Northern Darfur values range 100- 180mg/L. The author in reference [10] reported that 20- 150mg/L was for Hafirs in west Kordufan.  2.    Nitrogen as ammonia 050010001500200025003000350040004500ND1 ND2 ND14 ND13 SD3 SD6 SD7 SD800.511.522.533.5ND1 ND2 ND14 ND13 SD3 SD6 SD7 SD8444  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  The results of chemical analysis of ammonia were presented in table 5 and 6 and figure 2.  Values of ammonia for GOLO dams: ND1 and ND2 were nil due to the facts that the dams were fenced and no live- stock were allowed to enter. Values similar to WHO 1.5 mg/L were observed in Maleet Dam ND14 and Khor Nyala SD3 (1.6mg/L). Also higher values were reported in Rahad SD7 (3.0 mg/L), Rahad SD6 (2.8 mg/L), Hafir ND13 (2.6 mg/L) and Hafir Yau- Yau  Kashalango SD8 (2.3 mg/L). The higher values may be due to the access of live- stock to these Rahads and Hafirs. 4. Conclusion  1. It is observed that TDS values are very high specially in Rahad in Southern Darfur and open Hafirs due to human and live-stock contamination. Periodical monitoring of drinking water quality should be adopted using Hach portable instrument. Individual TDS components had to be detected. 2. Fencing of Dams and keeping live- stock away from open Dams and Khor Nyala contributed substantially in prevention of contamination by live- stock. 3. The low physico- chemical parameters of Khor Nyala needs further studies.  4. The relationship between TDS and diseases like cancer, cardio-vascular and other water- borne diseases should be investigated. References  [1] UNDP, (1999), United Nation Development Programme Research and Development during the water supply and sanitation Decade. John Reynolds. [2]  Thielman, N. M. and Geurrant R.L. (1996) from Rwanda to Wisconsin: The global Relevance of     Diarrheal Diseases, Journal of Medical Microbiology, 44:155-156. [3]  Loucks, P. (1994) Drinking water quality and sanitation, Water Resources Management Focusing on Sustainability, UNESCO, Paris: B 14. [4] Balek, J.; Bruen, M.; Gilbrich, W. H.; Jones, G., Lundquist, M.; Gilbrich, W. H.; Lundquist, D. and Skofteland, J. (1994). Water Quality Introduction. Applied Hydrology for Technician. 3, UNESCO, Paris. [5] WHO (1993), Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, vol. 2, WHO, Geneva. [6] WHO (1995), Guidelines for Control of Epidemic due to Shegilla Dysenteries types. WHO. CDRI 5.4 WHO, Geneva. [7] WHO, (1999) Proceedings of the Ninth International Rainwater Catchments Systems Conference, Pretoria, Brazil.  [8] Burton A. C and Cornhill J. F. (1977), Correlation of Cancer Death Rates with Altitude and Quality Water Supply of 100 cities in USA, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. [9] Graun G. F; and McGab L. J, (1975) Correlation between Mortality Rates and TDS – WHO (1993). D. Water Guidelines. [10] Hussein, M. E (2008). Microbiological and Physico- chemical Evaluation of Harvested and Stored Drinking Water in (Hafirs) in the West of North Kordufan State. [11] Chatwal G. R.; Mehra M. C; Katyal T. M.; Satake M. and Nagahiro, T. (1993). Environmental water 445  International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR) (2015) Volume 24, No 4, pp 438-446  Pollution and its control, New Delhi. Annual Publications of India 217-231. [12] Water Quality Association (2013), Consumption of low TDS water. [13] ITS (2003) Total Dissolved Solids in Drinking Water.  [14] Schroder H. A (1960), Relationship between Mortality from Cardiovascular Diseases and treated Water Supply, Journal of the American Medical Association, 172: 1902.  446  

Physico- chemical Assessment of Drinking Water in Northern and Southern Darfur

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Physico- chemical Assessment of Drinking Water in Northern and Southern Darfur

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