Dhall, Abhinav

Goecke, Roland

English

Facial expression analysis has been a very active field of research in recent years. This paper proposes a method for finding the apex of an expression, e.g. happiness, in a video containing a group of people based on expression intensity estimation. The proposed method is directly applied to video summarisation based on group happiness and timestamps; further, a novel Gaussian Process Regression based expression intensity estimation method is described. To demonstrate its performance, experiments on smile intensity estimation are performed and compared to other regression based techniques. The smile intensity estimator is extended to group happiness intensity estimation. The proposed intensity estimator can be extended easily for other expressions. The experiments are performed on an 'in the wild' dataset. Quantitative results are presented for comparison of our happiness-intensity detector. A user study was also conducted to verify the results of the proposed method

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     This is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication:  Dhall, A., & Goecke, R. (2012). Group expression intensity estimation in videos via Gaussian Processes. In Proceedings International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR 2012) (pp. 3525-3528). United States: IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.  This file was downloaded from: https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/publications/group-expression-intensity-estimation-in-videos-via-gaussian-proc  ©2012 IEEE.  Personal use of this material is permitted.  Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works   Notice:  This is the authors’ peer reviewed version of a work that was accepted for publication in 2012 21st International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR) and has been published at https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6460925. Changes resulting from the publishing process may not be reflected in this document.     Group Expression Intensity Estimation in Videos via Gaussian ProcessesAbhinav Dhall11Australian National Universityabhinav.dhall@anu.edu.auRoland Goecke2,12University of Canberraroland.goecke@ieee.orgAbstractFacial expression analysis has been a very activefield of research in recent years. This paper proposesa method for finding the apex of an expression, e.g.happiness, in a video containing a group of peoplebased on expression intensity estimation. The pro-posed method is directly applied to video summarisa-tion based on group happiness and timestamps; further,a novel Gaussian Process Regression based expressionintensity estimation method is described. To demon-strate its performance, experiments on smile intensityestimation are performed and compared to other regres-sion based techniques. The smile intensity estimator isextended to group happiness intensity estimation. Theproposed intensity estimator can be extended easily forother expressions. The experiments are performed onan ‘in the wild’ dataset. Quantitative results are pre-sented for comparison of our happiness-intensity detec-tor. A user study was also conducted to verify the resultsof the proposed method.1 IntroductionWith the large number of movies and millions of on-line videos (e.g. YouTube) released every year, efficientvideo summarisation and thumbnail generation for thepurpose of video retrieval have become more impor-tant than ever. This paper proposes expression apexdetection for a group of people using an expression in-tensity detector. Facial expression analysis is a highlyresearched topic and much attention has been given tothe analysis of an individual’s expression in images andvideos. However, little attention has been given to ex-pression analysis w.r.t. multiple people in a given frame,nor to the expression intensity. We demonstrate the util-ity of the proposed approach as a new expression inten-sity based criterion for video summarisation and eval-uate it on the example of expression apex detection forfinding the ‘happiest group’ frame in a video clip, whichFigure 1. Expression intensity expressionestimation on movie data (AFEW [5])can be used as a representative frame for the video.Facial expressions are the visualisation of movementin facial muscles in response to a person’s affectivestate, intentions, or social communications. Automaticfacial expression analysis has seen much research overthe last two decades and finds many practical appli-cations in human-computer interaction, affective com-puting, medical problems such as pain and depressionanalysis, image labelling and retrieval. [12] recentlyproposed a Support Vector Machine (SVM, [3]) basedsmile intensity estimator. [15] proposed a new image-based database, GENKI, of smiling and non-smilingimages, and evaluated several state-of-the-art methodsfor happiness detection. However, all of these consid-ered faces independent of each other, not as a group. Incontrast, we focus on the group expression.The main contributions of this paper are: a) expres-sion intensity estimation based on a GPR framework;b) a video summarisation method via face happinessintensity-based clustering and time stamps; c) weightedsummation of happiness intensity of multiple subjectsin a video frame based on social context.2 MethodGiven a video clip V with N frames r, V =[r1, ..., rN ] containing multiple actors m, we processFigure 2. Processing pipelineeach frame as follows: First, face detection [13] is ap-plied. Further, face alignment is performed via non-rigid deformable tracking. The aligned and croppedfaces are regressed for predicting their expression in-tensity. If there are multiple faces in a frame, relativeweights are assigned to each face based on their sizeand distance from the image centroid. Figure 2 showsthe processing pipeline for each frame for a video. Theproposed framework is evaluated on finding the apex inhappy videos. However, this is a generic framework thatcan be used for other expressions as well.2.1 Face Processing PipelineSaragih et al.’s Constrained Local Model (CLM)[11] is used to extract facial landmark points. It isbased on fitting a parameterised shape model to the lo-cation landmark points of the face. It predicts the loca-tions of the model’s landmarks by utilising an ensem-ble of local feature detectors, which are then combinedby enforcing a prior over their joint motion. The dis-tribution of the landmark locations is represented non-parametrically and optimised via subspace constrainedmeanshifts. The landmark points computed via CLMfitting are used to align the faces.2.2 Expression Intensity DetectionFor a given face f in a frame ri, we wish to esti-mate its expression intensity. As discussed earlier, fa-cial expressions are temporal in nature and a basic fa-cial expression comprises of various temporal dynamicstages: onset, apex and offset. As expressions are con-tinuous in nature, we define the following stages for theexemplary smile intensity starting from neutral (onset)to thrilled (apex): Neutral, Small Smile, Large Smile,Small Laugh, Large Laugh and Thrilled.For the expression intensity estimation problem,given m feature vectors computed from faces, D ={(xi, yi)}mi=1, the training set X is a set of input sam-ples xi of dimension N and Y is the corresponding setof vectors yi of dimension L. The goal here is to learna mapping function M : X → Y . Gaussian ProcessRegression (GPR) [9] is used to compute the mapping.GPR has gained increased popularity in statistical ma-chine learning as it offers a principled non-parametricBayesian framework for inference, model fitting andmodel selection [1].In GPR, an output yi = f(xi) + i for input xi andthe noise term is assumed to be independent and nor-mally distributed, i ∼ N (0, σ2n). A Gaussian predic-tive distribution is achieved by adding a Gaussian pro-cess prior: y∗|x∗,D ∼ N (µ, σ2) withµ = k∗[K + σ2nI]−1 y (1)σ2 = k(x∗, x∗) + σ2n − k∗[K + σ2nI]−1 k∗T (2)for a noisy query point x∗. In these equations, we haveK ∈ Rm×m, Kij = k(xi, xj) and k∗ ∈ R1×m, k∗i =k(x∗, xi). Here, k denotes a covariance function, whichencodes the assumptions about the function to be learnt.A squared exponential covariance function of the formk(xp, xq) = σ2f exp(− 12(xp−xq)TM2(xp−xq))+σ2nδpq(3)is used with Θ =({M2}, σ2f , σ2n) that implementsautomatic relevance determination (ARD) [9], where{M2} denotes the parameters in the symmetric matrixM2 = diag(l)−2. A point prediction yguess can be com-puted from the Gaussian predictive distribution by min-imising the expected loss asyopt|x∗ = argminyguess∫L(y∗, yguess)p(y∗|x∗,D)dy∗(4)where L(., .) is the loss function. For squared loss func-tions, the point prediction at query point x∗ is:yopt|x∗ = E(y∗)∼p(y∗|x∗,D)[y∗] = µ . (5)Figure 1 exemplifies the performance of the proposedsmile intensity estimator on a video clip from a facialexpressions movie database [5].Face Descriptors: The input sample vector xi foreach face is computed as follows: The aligned andcropped face (computed in Section 2.1) is used to com-pute Pyramid of Histogram of Gradients (PHOG) [2]and Local Phase Quantisation (LPQ) [8] features. Pa-rameters for the PHOG descriptor were set as: pyra-mid level L = 3, angle range = [0 − 360] and bincount = 16. LPQ is based on computing the short-term Fourier transform on the local image window andhas been experimentally shown to better handle blurand illumination than Linear Binary Patterns (LBP) [8].Then, xi is a normalised combination of these two his-tograms. The choice of these two descripors is based onour earlier experiments for emotion recognition [4].2.3 Handling Multiple ActorsGiven a video clip V with N frames r, V =[r1, ..., rN ] containing multiple actors m, a MultipleFigure 3. (Left) Input image. (Middle) Thesmile intensity heat map computed viaMAEM. (Right) The smile intensity heatmap computed viaMAEMw. It is evidentthat larger faces get a higher weightage.Actor Expression Model (MAEM) can be formulated asan average of the smile intensities for all the faces in agiven frame riMAEM =∑i IS im. (6)We wish to include social context information basedon the global structure on where actors are located ina given scene. [7] explored social features based onglobal structures of groups of people in social gatheringscenarios. Generally, in group images, people standingclose to the camera have relatively larger faces. [6] pro-posed a framework for detecting the pose of people in agroup. They also make a similar assumption to find if aperson is standing in the foreground or at the back in amultiple people pose detection scenario.For the multiple actor setting, we wish to applyweights to the expression intensities of subjects basedon the apparent size of their face in the image, as an in-dicator of the distance to the camera. The size of a facecan be estimated by the distance between the locationof the eyes given by si = ||l−r||. The relative face sizeθi of fi in frame is then given byθi =si∑i si/m(7)where the term∑i si/m is the mean face size of all thefaces in the frame.Weighted MAEM: The θi for each face is furthernormalised based on the maximum relative distance di.Adding this weight to Eq. 6, the weighted MAEM isMAEMw =∑i IS iωim(8)where ωi is the weight defined as θi/2β−1 and β isa control factor. Figure 3 shows the effect of addingweights to the smile intensities of faces. Left is the inputimage. The middle shows the smile intensity heat mapFigure 4. Comparison of the MAEM perfor-mance of GPR, KPLS, PLS and SVR.computed via MAEM and on the right is the smile in-tensity heat map computed via MAEMw. It is evidentvisually that larger faces get a higher weightage. For asingle subject, MAEMw is equivalent to MAEM.3 Experiments and ResultsFor the experiments, we used the Acted Facial Ex-pressions in The Wild (AFEW)1 [5] database. AFEW isa temporal video database collected from movies basedon a semi-automatic subtitle parsing based technique.It is the first facial expression database, which mimicsclose-to-real-world scenarios and labelled multiple sub-jects in a clip. The clips in the database have been col-lected from movies of different genres such as the HarryPotter series and Hugh Grant films, making the databasea challenging one.For the example smile intensity estimation, 3400faces in Flickr images were manually labelled for theirhappiness intensity. The GPR based smile intensity es-timation method is compared to Kernel Partial LeastSquares (KPLS) [10] and Support Vector Regression(SVR) [3]. For KPLS, we set the value of latent fac-tors as 8 and kernel size as 400. For SVR, a Radial Ba-sis Function based kernel and parameters were searchedusing a five-fold cross validation. Figure 4 describes thecomparison on the basis of Mean Average Error (MAE)for smile intensity estimation based on GPR with KPLSand non-linear SVM. The MAE for GPR is 0.7180, forKPLS is 0.9625 , for PLS is 0.9649 and for non-linearSVR is 1.108. We also evaluated the performance of theproposed method on a ‘happy’ clip from the FEEDTUM[14] database. Figure 6 exemplifies the performance ofthe smile intensity estimator for the GPR method.Video Summarisation: MAEMw was used forvideo summarisation. K-means clustering is applied1Available at http://cs.anu.edu.au/fewFigure 5. Top row: Example frames froma video. The two bottom rows showthe video summarisation results based onMAEM andMAEMw (Sec. 2)to the frame level happiness intensities. The distancesfrom each point to every centroid are sorted and theframes with the least distance from the centroid arechosen as the summary frames. Further, the selectedframes are sorted with respect to their original times-tamps. Figure 5 shows the output for a short video clipfrom AFEW containing multiple subjects. The blackboxes show the frames from the video clip, while themiddle and the bottom rows show the summarisationframes computed by MAEM and MAEMw, respec-tively. We conducted a user survey, where 10 users wereasked to rate on the scale of 0 (not good) - 5 (good),the video summarisation results based on expression forthe two methods MAEM and MAEMw. A one-wayANOVA analysis (p < 0.0001) shows that our hypoth-esis behind adding weights to intensities holds.4 ConclusionsThe paper proposes a method for estimating the in-tensity of a facial expression, which we demonstrate onthe example of finding the apex of happy expressionsin movie clips but which can be similarly applied toother facial expressions. To this end, the smile intensityis estimated based on a Gaussian Process Regression.Further, for handling multiple subjects in a frame, aweighted model based on contextual features is formu-lated. The contextual feature comprises of the distanceto centroid normalised face sizes. We show that theproposed method can be directly applied to expression-based video summarisation. The proposed method canFigure 6. Result for a clip from the FEED-TUM database [14] (Sec. 2)be easily used with other expressions as well.References[1] C. Bishop. Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning.Springer. 2006.[2] A. Bosch, A. Zisserman, and X. Munoz. RepresentingShape with a Spatial Pyramid Kernel. In CIVR, 2007.[3] C.-C. Chang and C.-J. Lin. LIBSVM: a library for sup-port vector machines, 2001. http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/˜cjlin/libsvm.[4] A. Dhall, A. Asthana, R. Goecke, and T. Gedeon. Emo-tion recognition using PHOG and LPQ features. In IEEEAFGR2011 workshop FERA, 2011.[5] A. Dhall, R. Goecke, S. Lucey, and T. Gedeon. A semi-automatic method for collecting richly labelled large fa-cial expression databases from movies. IEEE Multime-dia, 2012.[6] M. Eichner and V. Ferrari. We Are Family: Joint PoseEstimation of Multiple Persons. In ECCV, 2010.[7] A. Gallagher and T. Chen. Understanding Images ofGroups of People. In CVPR, 2009.[8] V. Ojansivu and J. Heikkila¨. Blur Insensitive Tex-ture Classification Using Local Phase Quantization. InICISP, pages 236–243, 2008.[9] C. E. Rasmussen. Gaussian processes for machine learn-ing. MIT Press, 2006.[10] R. Rosipal. Chemoinformatics and Advanced MachineLearning Perspectives: Complex Computational Meth-ods and Collaborative Techniques, chapter NonlinearPartial Least Squares: An Overview. ACCM, IGIGlobal, 2011.[11] J. Saragih and R. Goecke. Learning AAM fitting throughsimulation. Pattern Recognition, 2009.[12] K. Shimada, T. Matsukawa, Y. Noguchi, and T. Ku-rita. Appearance-based smile intensity estimation bycascaded support vector machines. In ACCV Workshops,2010.[13] P. A. Viola and M. J. Jones. Rapid object detection usinga boosted cascade of simple features. In CVPR, 2001.[14] F. Wallhoff. Facial expressions and emotion database,2006. http://www.mmk.ei.tum.de/˜waf/fgnet/feedtum.html.[15] J. Whitehill, G. Littlewort, I. R. Fasel, M. S. Bartlett,and J. R. Movellan. Toward Practical Smile Detection.IEEE TPAMI, 2009.

Group expression intensity estimation in videos via Gaussian Processes

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Group expression intensity estimation in videos via Gaussian Processes

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