Buijs, A.E.

Roos-Klein Lankhorst, J.

Vries, S., de

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Siegrist, D., Clivaz, C., Hunziker, M. & Iten, S. (eds.) (2006). Exploring the Nature of Management. 
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas.
University of Applied Sciences Rapperswil, Switzerland, 13-17 September 2006. Rapperswil.
284
Mapping the Attractiveness of the Dutch Landscape:
A GIS-Based Landscape Appreciation Model (Glam-2)
Sjerp de Vries, Janneke Roos-Klein Lankhorst & Arjen E. Buijs
Alterra Green World Research, The Netherlands
sjerp.devries@wur.nl
janneke.roos@wur.nl
arjen.buijs@wur.nl
Keywords: Landscape appreciation, GIS, regression, naturalness, urbanisation, historical distinctiveness, skyline 
disturbance, validation.
Introduction
The main objective of Dutch nature policy is to 
make an essential contribution to a liveable and 
sustainable society through the conservation, res-
toration, development, and sustainable use of na-
ture and landscape. One of the motives of the Dutch 
government behind this objective is that ‘we want a 
beautiful country to live and work in’ (LNV 2000). 
To accommodate this desire, it is necessary to know 
where people like the landscape in their environ-
ment and where they do not. It is also important 
to know which physical characteristics of the land-
scape contribute to this attractiveness. To provide 
such information in a cost-efficient way, a GIS-
based model was developed to map, monitor, and 
simulate the attractiveness of the landscape in one’s 
living environment.  The first version of this model, 
entitled “GIS-based Landscape Appreciation Mod-
el (GLAM)”, was strongly based on existing theo-
retical insights. However, it was only moderately 
successful, one of the problems being the overlap 
of the GIS-indicators for several of the theoretically 
important characteristics of the landscape (De Vries 
& Gerritsen 2003). The Netherlands Environmental 
Assessment Agency commissioned a second, im-
proved version on the model. In this paper this sec-
ond version is presented, as well as its validation. 
Model
The model predicts landscape attractiveness based 
solely on nationally available GIS-data on the land-
scape for each 250 x 250 meter cell. GLAM-2 dis-
tinguishes three positive GIS-indicators: Natural-
ness, Historical distinctiveness, Relief, and three 
negative ones: Skyline disturbance, Urbanisation, 
Noise level. Each indicator has five levels signify-
ing how positive (or negative) the physical state of 
the landscape is thought to be evaluated by the av-
erage Dutch resident with regard to this aspect. The 
outcomes of a national survey among almost 3000 
Dutch residents were used to determine the optimal 
weights for the different indicators (De Vries & Van 
Kralingen 2002). In the survey people were asked to 
rate the countryside surrounding their place of resi-
dence. To bring the GLAM-predictions at the same 
level as the rated surrounding countryside, an av-
erage predicted value was calculated over all cells 
within a five kilometre radius of the respondents’ 
postcode. The six indicators ‘explained’ 36% of the 
variance in attractiveness scores (averaged over 3 
or more respondents with the same postcode). Ac-
tually the regression analysis showed that only four 
of the six indicators were needed to achieve this re-
sult: Relief and Noise level had no added predic-
tive value.
Validation study
GLAM-2 has been validated using data from an-
other, more recent survey on landscape attractive-
ness (SNM 2005). Almost 5000 people living in 
or nearby one of 52 delineated areas were asked 
to rate the landscape within this delineated area. 
Results showed that GLAM-2 explained 47% of 
the variance in the average attractiveness rating of 
the 52 areas. So, rather than shrinkage, an increase 
in explained variance was observed. This increase 
Landscape and its Images
285
is thought to be due to the averages per area be-
ing based on a larger number of people (between 
42 and 142, rather than 3 or more). Also the fact 
that the area to be rated was clearly delineated may 
have helped. Of course the model (still) has its lim-
itations. For example, we do not consider GLAM 
to be suited for use at a very detailed, local level. 
On the other hand, comparisons of GLAM-predic-
tions and judgements made by landscape experts 
clearly show that landscape quality and its attrac-
tiveness to lay people are two separate things. All 
in all, although we intend to develop the model fur-
ther, we think GLAM-2 already constitutes a use-
ful tool for policy makers and spatial planners.
References
De Vries, S. & Gerritsen, E. (2003). Van fysieke kenmerken 
naar landschappelijke schoonheid; de voorspellen-
de waarde van fysieke kenmerken, zoals vastgelegd 
in ruimtelijke bestanden, voor de schoonheidsbelev-
ing van Nederlandse landschappen. In: Alterra-rapport 
718/Reeks Belevingsonderzoek 7. Wageningen.
De Vries, S. & Van Kralingen, R.B.A.S. (2002). De belev-
ing van het Nederlandse landschap door haar bewon-
ers; de geschiktheid van het SPEL-instrument voor 
monitoringsdoeleinden. In: Alterra-rapport 609. Wa-
geningen.
LNV. (2000). “Nature for people, people for nature”, poli-
cy document on nature, forest and landscape in the 21st 
century. The Hague.
Roos-Klein Lankhorst, J., De Vries, S., Buijs, A., Bloem-
men, M. & Schuiling, C. (2005). BelevingsGIS versie 
2; waardering van het Nederlandse landschap door de 
bevolking op kaart. In: Alterra rapport 1138/Reeks 
Belevingsonderzoek 14. Wageningen.
SNM. (2005). Nederland kan zo mooi zijn; onderzoek naar 
de beleving van 52 gebieden door omwonenden. Deel 
I: landelijke conclusies en resultaten. Utrecht.


Mapping the attractiveness of the Dutch landscape: a GIS-based landscape appreciation model (Glam-2)

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