The basic values of organic agriculture is laid down in the IFOAM four basic principles: the principle of health, the principle of ecology, the principle of fairness and the principle of care. These principles and the consequences and challenges for the further development of organic plant breeding is discussed. It is also explained why genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are banne

Lammerts Van Bueren, E.

English

When it comes to discussions on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and organic agriculture, biotechnologists often ask: “Why are your rules so strict? Why ban GMOs when they are the only tool to secure the world’s future need for food? They are more efficient, quicker, etc!”

When asked these questions I explain the underlying values of organic agriculture. In this article I will discuss the basic values of organic agriculture as laid down in the IFOAM four basic principles, and will relate them to the field of plant breeding. I also discuss the consequences and challenges for the further development of organic plant breeding

Lammerts van Bueren, E.T.

Organic Eprints

Which way now for organic seeds and livestock?Special Edition: The Organic Breeding debateEcology and FarmingNo. 47February 2010 • 5€plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and EventsThe magazine of the International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture Movements7Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010Ethics of Plant Breeding: The IFOAM Basic Principles as a Guide for the Evolution of Organic Plant BreedingBy Edith Lammerts van BuerenLouis Bolk InstituteEmail: e.lammerts@louisbolk.nlWhen  it  comes  to  discussions  on  genetically modified  organisms  (GMOs)  and  organic  agri-culture,  biotechnologists  often  ask:  “Why  are your rules so strict? Why ban GMOs when they are the only tool to secure the world’s future need for food? They are more efficient, quicker, etc!” When asked these questions I explain the under-lying values of organic agriculture. In this article I will discuss the basic values of organic agricul-ture as laid down in the IFOAM four basic prin-ciples (see Figure 1), and will relate them to the field of plant breeding. I also discuss the conse-quences and challenges for the further develop-ment of organic plant breeding.Normative valuesIn 2004 Hugo Alrøe from DARCOF, Denmark, described  three  perspectives  within  the  organic movement. 1. Values. Organic agriculture is founded on con-cerns about soil fertility and the belief that the liv-ing soil is a basis for a healthy plant and farming system.  Such  values  initiated  the  development of an organic movement. The recent reformula-tion of the IFOAM principles of health, ecology, fairness and care (see www.ifoam.org) show that organic agriculture is still value driven from “in-side” the movement.2. Protest against conventional agriculture. In the 1970s more and more people supported organic agriculture as a protest against conventional agri-culture. They were driven by political issues such as environmental pollution and chemical residues. The driving force came more from the “outside”, but was closely connected to the values from “in-side” the organic movement. 3. Niche market. Since the 1990s the organic sec-tor has further grown as conventional traders dis-covered  that  organic  products  were  an  valuable niche market. The driving force behind this type of development was triggered by economic fac-tors, working as an “outside” motive for further development. Nowadays  organic  agriculture  is  a  result  of  an interaction  between  the  three  perspectives.  The standards  for  organic  agriculture  are  an  expres-sion of the current underlying values and serve to justify the sector’s arguments against undesirable developments, while giving guidance on the de-sirability of new developments. Product or process based values?The values of organic agriculture and, therefore, its  norms  and  standards  are  process  orientated rather than product orientated. That is, they are based on the process of farming and not specifi-cally on the product. A farmer, for example, re-ceives certification because his farm management conforms  to  the  standards  and  not  because  his products achieve a certain level of quality.8Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010Which way now for organic seeds and livestock?Special Edition: The Organic Breeding debateEcology and FarmingNo. 47February 2010 • 5€plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and EventsThe magazine of the International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture MovementsThis  difference  between  product  and  process-based focus causes confusion in the public dis-cussion  of  GMOs.  In  a  discussion  people  may speak  from  different  standpoints,  focussing  ei-ther on the product or the process of genetic en-gineering. Those who are product orientated are only concerned with the effects a new technique or product may have on issues like health or the environment. For them, the methods or processes is unimportant. Others who are very critical about genetic engineering regard the process of forcing foreign genes into the genome of a living organ-ism as a violation to the integrity of life.Interestingly, the European regulation on GMOs is based on both process and product. This means that  oil  derived  from  genetically  modified  soy-beans is considered a GMO even though it con-tains  no  modified  DNA  (only  protein  contains modified DNA). This is in contrast to the USA where the regulation is purely product based, and the oil is not considered as a GMO.Integrity of LifeThe European attitude towards GMOs reflects a shift in society to considering not only humans and sentient animals as ethically relevant but all living  entities  including  plants.  This  view  con-siders  autonomy  and  dignity  as  intrinsic  values of all living beings. The interpretation of intrin-sic  value  depends  on  the  relationship  with  na-ture. Considering plants merely as a set of genes that can be changed according the preference of mankind, makes a farce of the idea of integrity of plants. Organic agriculture does not support such a biocentric framework of action, it acknowledg-es the integrity of humans, animals and plants. It also means that this value system should be taken into account when making decisions on farming systems, and also in breeding policies.Integrity  of  life  refers  to  an  organism’s  inher-ent  nature,  its  species  specific  characteristics and the balance it maintains with its natural (or, in the case of cultivated plants, to its organically farmed) environment. This respect for the integ-rity of life does not imply that interference in na-ture is prohibited in organic farming; interference is allowed but not at all costs. Organic farm man-agement aims at producing food for mankind, but in such a way that one cooperates with life and not by overruling or bypassing it.The consequences of the IFOAM principles for plant breeding As plant breeding and seed production are part of organic agriculture, the respect for life will also influence the way that the breeding process is ap-proached. This ethical attitude is reflected in the IFOAM  principles  of  health,  ecology,  fairness and care, (see Figure 1).Principle of HealthPrinciple of Ecology Principle of FairnessPrinciple of CareFigure 1: The four IFOAM principles (see www.ifoam.org)Which way now for organic seeds and livestock?Special Edition: The Organic Breeding debateEcology and FarmingNo. 47February 2010 • 5€plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and EventsThe magazine of the International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture Movements9Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010The principle of health means that organic plant breeding serves the wholeness and integrity of living systems by supporting their immunity, resilience,  regeneration  and  sustainability.  This implies that there is a need for robust and dynam-ic varieties that suppress weeds, tolerate disease and interact with beneficial soil organisms, such as mycorrhiza. Such a systems approach requires varieties that can be reproduced by farmers and are not male sterile.The principle of ecology leads to the op-timal functioning of a diverse range of ecological production systems appropriate for specific sites. This would imply breeding for regional adaptabil-ity through decentralised (regional) and participa-tory breeding programs, promoting genetic diver-sity as a tool for sustainability. Using ecological principles implies that breeding can take a multi-level approach to disease resistance, including the breeding for morphological or physiological traits that contribute to the robustness of a plant. For example, a cabbage variety can gain resistance to insects such as thrips by having a slightly thicker wax layer on the leaves, and wheat can overcome certain ear diseases when the haulm length is lon-ger thus raising the ear above the moist leaf can-opy where it is drier due to exposure to the wind and sun.The principle of fairness applied in breed-ing  aims  at  serving  equity,  respect,  justice  and stewardship of the shared world. This would im-ply free access to genetic resources, while prohib-iting patents on life. It would also require equal sharing of the benefits when varieties have been bred in cooperation between commercial breeding companies and farmers.The principle of care applied in organic plant breeding should enhance efficiency and pro-ductivity in a precautionary and responsible man-ner. This is one of the reasons why organic agri-culture refrains from the use of GMOs and related techniques such as cell fusion techniques.FutureThe  question  then  arises:  does  refusing  GMOs mean that organic agriculture will be cut off from future developments? My answer is: no. But we will have to deal with challenges as we have done before  when  we  decided  to  refrain  from  using mineral fertilizers and had to learn how to com-post and use organic fertilizers to build up a liv-ing soil with a good level of soil fertility. We also dealt  with  the  challenge  of  not  using  chemical herbicides and pesticides. We had to learn how to enhance and mange biodiversity to build up agro-eco resilience. Meeting the challenges posed by genetic engineering is no different; we will learn how to breed for adaptive, flexible and nutritious varieties to build up plant robustness combined with food quality.It is important that we clearly communicate our values concerning organic agriculture. In particu-lar we must be more explicit in how we commu-nicate our breeding goals. For example take the organic principles:•	 When  following  the  principle  of  health,  the challenge is to respect plant integrity as part of  the  whole  agricultural  ecosystem,  which means,  for  example,  that  improving  wheat does not only include the yield, but also the length of the stem for straw and the expan-sion of the root system so it is able to exploit a larger volume of soil.10Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010Which way now for organic seeds and livestock?Special Edition: The Organic Breeding debateEcology and FarmingNo. 47February 2010 • 5€plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and EventsThe magazine of the International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture Movements•	 With respect to the principle of ecology the challenge is to develop multilevel approaches in breeding. A crop that is able to cover the soil quickly may not only be capable of grow-ing under low-input conditions but would also be more weed suppressive.•	 The  principle  of  fairness  is  also  important since breeding includes not only a technical activity but also a social-economic construc-tion.  Economic  constraints  encountered  by commercial  seed  producers  are  steering  the development  of  the  varieties.  For  example, varieties are made male sterile so that compet-itor breeders are not able to use them in them in their own breeding programs, while crops are  bred  as  F1  hybrids  so  that  farmers  will have to buy new seed every year. Likewise, Monsanto’s  production  of  terminator  seeds in which the seed can produce a crop but will not produce seed that will grow into the sec-ond generation. Commercial breeding is orga-nized in such a way that it is only profitable when seed sales are large enough. This means that  breeding  for  niche  markets  such  as  or-ganic is not commercially viable. New social-economic structures such as co-operations be-tween farmers, traders and breeders should be designed to enable breeding for such markets. Participatory breeding can be an integral part of this new model in which farmers do part of the selection. They would then be recognised and rewarded for their efforts.We can conclude that we have many reasons to apply the precautionary principle of care by re-fraining from using GMOs. There are enough al-ternatives to improve crops, and there is plenty of unexplored indigenous knowledge to initiate new multifaceted  breeding  strategies.  In  such  a  way the IFOAM principles can be translated into the field of plant breeding.ReferencesLammerts van Bueren, E.T., Struik, P.C., Tiemens-Hulscher, M. and Jacobsen, E. 2003. The concepts of intrinsic value and integrity of plants in organic plant breeding and propa-gation, 43: 1922-1929. (This paper can be sent by the au-thor on request.) The Ulrich Walter GmbH is specialised in organic foods for morethan 25 years and seated in Diepholz, Germany.  We have striven to combine ecological practise and delight withsocial commitments in its daily business.Our high quality products, as there are tea, coffee, herbs and spices, are marketed under the brand names LEBENSBAUM and BIOVEDA    us and have made  the leader in the organic food marketFurthermore we are experienced in the private label productionfor several customers in Germany as well as abroad.U L R I C H   W A L T E R   G M B H     P O S T F A C H   1 2 6 9     4 9 3 4 2   D I E P H O L Z     W W W . L E B E N S B A U M . D Ein Germany.

Ethics of Plant Breeding: The IFOAM Basic Principles as a Guide for the Evolution of Organic Plant Breeding

Wageningen Yield 

Which way now for organic seeds 
and livestock?
Special Edition: The Organic 
Breeding debate
Ecology and Farming
No. 47
February 2010 • 5€
plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and Events
The magazine of the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements
7
Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010
Ethics of Plant Breeding: The IFOAM Basic Principles as a Guide 
for the Evolution of Organic Plant Breeding
By Edith Lammerts van Bueren
Louis Bolk Institute
Email: e.lammerts@louisbolk.nl
When it comes to discussions on genetically 
modified organisms (GMOs) and organic agri-
culture, biotechnologists often ask: “Why are 
your rules so strict? Why ban GMOs when they 
are the only tool to secure the world’s future need 
for food? They are more efficient, quicker, etc!” 
When asked these questions I explain the under-
lying values of organic agriculture. In this article 
I will discuss the basic values of organic agricul-
ture as laid down in the IFOAM four basic prin-
ciples (see Figure 1), and will relate them to the 
field of plant breeding. I also discuss the conse-
quences and challenges for the further develop-
ment of organic plant breeding.
Normative values
In 2004 Hugo Alrøe from DARCOF, Denmark, 
described three perspectives within the organic 
movement. 
1. Values. Organic agriculture is founded on con-
cerns about soil fertility and the belief that the liv-
ing soil is a basis for a healthy plant and farming 
system. Such values initiated the development 
of an organic movement. The recent reformula-
tion of the IFOAM principles of health, ecology, 
fairness and care (see www.ifoam.org) show that 
organic agriculture is still value driven from “in-
side” the movement.
2. Protest against conventional agriculture. In the 
1970s more and more people supported organic 
agriculture as a protest against conventional agri-
culture. They were driven by political issues such 
as environmental pollution and chemical residues. 
The driving force came more from the “outside”, 
but was closely connected to the values from “in-
side” the organic movement. 
3. Niche market. Since the 1990s the organic sec-
tor has further grown as conventional traders dis-
covered that organic products were an valuable 
niche market. The driving force behind this type 
of development was triggered by economic fac-
tors, working as an “outside” motive for further 
development. 
Nowadays organic agriculture is a result of an 
interaction between the three perspectives. The 
standards for organic agriculture are an expres-
sion of the current underlying values and serve to 
justify the sector’s arguments against undesirable 
developments, while giving guidance on the de-
sirability of new developments. 
Product or process based values?
The values of organic agriculture and, therefore, 
its norms and standards are process orientated 
rather than product orientated. That is, they are 
based on the process of farming and not specifi-
cally on the product. A farmer, for example, re-
ceives certification because his farm management 
conforms to the standards and not because his 
products achieve a certain level of quality.
8Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010
Which way now for organic seeds 
and livestock?
Special Edition: The Organic 
Breeding debate
Ecology and Farming
No. 47
February 2010 • 5€
plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and Events
The magazine of the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements
This difference between product and process-
based focus causes confusion in the public dis-
cussion of GMOs. In a discussion people may 
speak from different standpoints, focussing ei-
ther on the product or the process of genetic en-
gineering. Those who are product orientated are 
only concerned with the effects a new technique 
or product may have on issues like health or the 
environment. For them, the methods or processes 
is unimportant. Others who are very critical about 
genetic engineering regard the process of forcing 
foreign genes into the genome of a living organ-
ism as a violation to the integrity of life.
Interestingly, the European regulation on GMOs 
is based on both process and product. This means 
that oil derived from genetically modified soy-
beans is considered a GMO even though it con-
tains no modified DNA (only protein contains 
modified DNA). This is in contrast to the USA 
where the regulation is purely product based, and 
the oil is not considered as a GMO.
Integrity of Life
The European attitude towards GMOs reflects a 
shift in society to considering not only humans 
and sentient animals as ethically relevant but all 
living entities including plants. This view con-
siders autonomy and dignity as intrinsic values 
of all living beings. The interpretation of intrin-
sic value depends on the relationship with na-
ture. Considering plants merely as a set of genes 
that can be changed according the preference of 
mankind, makes a farce of the idea of integrity of 
plants. Organic agriculture does not support such 
a biocentric framework of action, it acknowledg-
es the integrity of humans, animals and plants. It 
also means that this value system should be taken 
into account when making decisions on farming 
systems, and also in breeding policies.
Integrity of life refers to an organism’s inher-
ent nature, its species specific characteristics 
and the balance it maintains with its natural (or, 
in the case of cultivated plants, to its organically 
farmed) environment. This respect for the integ-
rity of life does not imply that interference in na-
ture is prohibited in organic farming; interference 
is allowed but not at all costs. Organic farm man-
agement aims at producing food for mankind, but 
in such a way that one cooperates with life and 
not by overruling or bypassing it.
The consequences of the IFOAM principles 
for plant breeding 
As plant breeding and seed production are part of 
organic agriculture, the respect for life will also 
influence the way that the breeding process is ap-
proached. This ethical attitude is reflected in the 
IFOAM principles of health, ecology, fairness 
and care, (see Figure 1).
Principle of Health
Principle of Ecology Principle of Fairness
Principle of Care
Figure 1: The four IFOAM principles (see www.ifoam.org)
Which way now for organic seeds 
and livestock?
Special Edition: The Organic 
Breeding debate
Ecology and Farming
No. 47
February 2010 • 5€
plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and Events
The magazine of the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements
9
Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010
The principle of health means that organic 
plant breeding serves the wholeness and integrity 
of living systems by supporting their immunity, 
resilience, regeneration and sustainability. This 
implies that there is a need for robust and dynam-
ic varieties that suppress weeds, tolerate disease 
and interact with beneficial soil organisms, such 
as mycorrhiza. Such a systems approach requires 
varieties that can be reproduced by farmers and 
are not male sterile.
The principle of ecology leads to the op-
timal functioning of a diverse range of ecological 
production systems appropriate for specific sites. 
This would imply breeding for regional adaptabil-
ity through decentralised (regional) and participa-
tory breeding programs, promoting genetic diver-
sity as a tool for sustainability. Using ecological 
principles implies that breeding can take a multi-
level approach to disease resistance, including the 
breeding for morphological or physiological traits 
that contribute to the robustness of a plant. For 
example, a cabbage variety can gain resistance to 
insects such as thrips by having a slightly thicker 
wax layer on the leaves, and wheat can overcome 
certain ear diseases when the haulm length is lon-
ger thus raising the ear above the moist leaf can-
opy where it is drier due to exposure to the wind 
and sun.
The principle of fairness applied in breed-
ing aims at serving equity, respect, justice and 
stewardship of the shared world. This would im-
ply free access to genetic resources, while prohib-
iting patents on life. It would also require equal 
sharing of the benefits when varieties have been 
bred in cooperation between commercial breeding 
companies and farmers.
The principle of care applied in organic 
plant breeding should enhance efficiency and pro-
ductivity in a precautionary and responsible man-
ner. This is one of the reasons why organic agri-
culture refrains from the use of GMOs and related 
techniques such as cell fusion techniques.
Future
The question then arises: does refusing GMOs 
mean that organic agriculture will be cut off from 
future developments? My answer is: no. But we 
will have to deal with challenges as we have done 
before when we decided to refrain from using 
mineral fertilizers and had to learn how to com-
post and use organic fertilizers to build up a liv-
ing soil with a good level of soil fertility. We also 
dealt with the challenge of not using chemical 
herbicides and pesticides. We had to learn how to 
enhance and mange biodiversity to build up agro-
eco resilience. Meeting the challenges posed by 
genetic engineering is no different; we will learn 
how to breed for adaptive, flexible and nutritious 
varieties to build up plant robustness combined 
with food quality.
It is important that we clearly communicate our 
values concerning organic agriculture. In particu-
lar we must be more explicit in how we commu-
nicate our breeding goals. For example take the 
organic principles:
•	 When following the principle of health, the 
challenge is to respect plant integrity as part 
of the whole agricultural ecosystem, which 
means, for example, that improving wheat 
does not only include the yield, but also the 
length of the stem for straw and the expan-
sion of the root system so it is able to exploit 
a larger volume of soil.
10
Ecology & Farming  |   FEbruary 2010
Which way now for organic seeds 
and livestock?
Special Edition: The Organic 
Breeding debate
Ecology and Farming
No. 47
February 2010 • 5€
plus IFOAM pages, Global Monitor, Publications and Events
The magazine of the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements
•	 With respect to the principle of ecology the 
challenge is to develop multilevel approaches 
in breeding. A crop that is able to cover the 
soil quickly may not only be capable of grow-
ing under low-input conditions but would also 
be more weed suppressive.
•	 The principle of fairness is also important 
since breeding includes not only a technical 
activity but also a social-economic construc-
tion. Economic constraints encountered by 
commercial seed producers are steering the 
development of the varieties. For example, 
varieties are made male sterile so that compet-
itor breeders are not able to use them in them 
in their own breeding programs, while crops 
are bred as F1 hybrids so that farmers will 
have to buy new seed every year. Likewise, 
Monsanto’s production of terminator seeds 
in which the seed can produce a crop but will 
not produce seed that will grow into the sec-
ond generation. Commercial breeding is orga-
nized in such a way that it is only profitable 
when seed sales are large enough. This means 
that breeding for niche markets such as or-
ganic is not commercially viable. New social-
economic structures such as co-operations be-
tween farmers, traders and breeders should be 
designed to enable breeding for such markets. 
Participatory breeding can be an integral part 
of this new model in which farmers do part of 
the selection. They would then be recognised 
and rewarded for their efforts.
We can conclude that we have many reasons to 
apply the precautionary principle of care by re-
fraining from using GMOs. There are enough al-
ternatives to improve crops, and there is plenty of 
unexplored indigenous knowledge to initiate new 
multifaceted breeding strategies. In such a way 
the IFOAM principles can be translated into the 
field of plant breeding.
References
Lammerts van Bueren, E.T., Struik, P.C., Tiemens-Hulscher, M. 
and Jacobsen, E. 2003. The concepts of intrinsic value and 
integrity of plants in organic plant breeding and propa-
gation, 43: 1922-1929. (This paper can be sent by the au-
thor on request.) 
The Ulrich Walter GmbH is specialised in organic foods for more
than 25 years and seated in Diepholz, Germany.  
We have striven to combine ecological practise and delight with
social commitments in its daily business.
Our high quality products, as there are tea, coffee, herbs and 
spices, are marketed under the brand names LEBENSBAUM and 
BIOVEDA  usand have made the leader in the organic food market
Furthermore we are experienced in the private label production
for several customers in Germany as well as abroad.
U L R I C H  W A L T E R  G M B H   P O S T F A C H  1 2 6 9   4 9 3 4 2  D I E P H O L Z   W W W . L E B E N S B A U M . D E
in Germany.


Ethics of Plant Breeding: The IFOAM Basic Principles as a Guide for the Evolution of Organic Plant Breeding

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