Nonlinear distributed tracking for a single target is addressed in this paper. This problem consists of tracking a target of interest while moving the sensors to `best' positions according to an critera appropriate for the problem. Both target tracking and manoeuvring of sensors are carried out jointly using a novel Sequential Monte Carlo technique. The proposed technique is illustrated using a bearing-only problem and simulations are used to compare the performance of the proposed technique with distributed tracking using fixed sensors.Nonlinear distributed tracking for a single target is addressed in this paper. This problem consists of tracking a target of interest while moving the sensors to `best' positions according to an critera appropriate for the problem. Both target tracking and manoeuvring of sensors are carried out jointly using a novel Sequential Monte Carlo technique. The proposed technique is illustrated using a bearing-only problem and simulations are used to compare the performance of the proposed technique with distributed tracking using fixed sensors

Bull, DR

Canagarajah, CN

Jaward, MH

English

Explore Bristol Research

Jaward, MH., Bull, DR., & Canagarajah, CN. (2006). Distributedtracking with sequential Monte Carlo methods for manoeuvrablesensors. In IEEENonlinear Statistical Signal Processing Workshop2006, Cambridge, UK (pp. 113 - 116). Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers (IEEE).https://doi.org/10.1109/NSSPW.2006.4378832Peer reviewed versionLink to published version (if available):10.1109/NSSPW.2006.4378832Link to publication record on the Bristol Research PortalPDF-documentUniversity of Bristol – Bristol Research PortalGeneral rightsThis document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only thepublished version using the reference above. Full terms of use are available:http://www.bristol.ac.uk/red/research-policy/pure/user-guides/brp-terms/DISTRIBUTED TRACKING WITH SEQUENTIAL MONTE CARLO METHODS FORMANOEUVRABLE SENSORSM.H. Jaward, D. Bull and N. CanagarajahDepartment of Electrical & Electronic EngineeringUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UKm.h.jaward @bristol.ac.ukABSTRACTNonlinear distributed tracking for a single target is addressedin this paper. This problem consists of tracking a target of in-terest while moving the sensors to 'best' positions accordingto an critera appropriate for the problem. Both target track-ing and manoeuvring of sensors are carried out jointly using anovel Sequential Monte Carlo technique. The proposed tech-nique is illustrated using a bearing-only problem and simu-lations are used to compare the performance of the proposedtechnique with distributed tracking using fixed sensors.1. INTRODUCTIONSensors are valuable resources, making it imperative that theyare deployed in a manner that maximises their effectiveness.This requires the determination of the optimal location andmotion of the sensor swarm within the environment underconsideration. As explained in [1], ideal sensor placementis a problem exhibiting non-linear combinatorial propertiessince the position of each individual sensor in the set of avail-able sensors will affect the optimal placement of the othermembers of the set. Therefore, for a even a small number ofsensors it is computationally onerous to exhaustively searchall possible solutions for the optimum and the problem be-comes one of search-based optimisation. Reference [1] re-ports that Genetic Algorithms (GA) are the most efficient op-timisation techniques compared with other methods such asrandom search, dynamic hill climbing and simulated anneal-ing. But the target tracking and the sensor location optimisa-tion are done separately. Karan et al. [2] consider the problemof tracking with multiple asynchronous drifting sonobuoysusing an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). Marrs [3] solves theabove problem using a sequential Monte Carlo method.This paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents thesystem model used in this paper and section 3 reviews brieflythe Sequential Monte Carlo on which the proposed algorithmis based on. Section 4 introduces the proposed distributedThis work forms a part of the DIF-DTC project whose funding and sup-port is gratefully acknowledged.tracking algorithm and the performace of the proposed algor-tihm is illustrated in section 5.2. SYSTEM MODELIn this paper, we are concerned with the problem of perform-ing on-line state estimation for multi-dimensional signals thatcan be modelled using Markovian state-space models that arenonlinear and non-Gaussian. The unobserved global state{xt; t C N} is modelled as a Markov process with initialdistribution p(xo) and transition probability p(xt xt 1). Theobservations {Yt; t C N} are assumed to be conditionallyindependent (in time) given the process xt and of marginaldistribution P(Yt xt). We denote by Xt {x0,... xt} andby Yt {Yo,.... Yt }, respectively, the system state and theobservations up to time t. The measurements Yt are recordedby K sensors, and we use yk to denote the subset of observa-tions made by the k-th sensor.This work jointly estimates the sensor locations while track-ing. Although the algorithm developed is valid for widerrange of applications, we concentrate our investigation on theproblem of tracking a manoeuvaring target in a 2-D plane.The manoeuvring target motion is modelled using a Markovjump system of the following form:Xt = f (xt 1,Ut,Vt) (1)Here f (.) is the system function and ut is a discrete time in-dex indicating different modes of the target. The augmentedstate vector of 2-D positions of the target and sensors is xt andvt is the noise term. The proposed algorithm is illustrated forthe bearing only tracking problem. This problem assumes thatwe have nodes which are capable of measuring the angle ofthe target's position relative to the sensor node t.3. PARTICLE FILTER ALGORITHMSequential Monte Carlo techniques also known as particle fil-tering and condensation algorithm have been been describedin length in the literature [4]. In what follows, we give a sum-1-4244-0581-5/06/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE.Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.mary of the framework and conceptual ideas behind the se-quential Monte Carlo techniques.For tracking the target of interest, the posterior state dis-tribution p(xt Zt), also known as filtering distribution has tobe calculated at each time step. In Bayesian sequential esti-mation the filtering distribution can be computed according tothe two step recursion:prediction stepp(xt Yt_j) = xiPxt_-)p(xt_ 1Yt_ )dxt_1, (2)andfiltering stepP(Xt IYt) cx P(Yt lXtWP(t IYt- 1), (3)where the prediction step follows from marginalisation, andthe new filtering distribution is obtained through a direct ap-plication of the Bayes' rule. This recursion requires the spec-ification of a dynamic model describing the state evolution,p(xt xt- 1) and a model that gives the likelihood of any statein the light of the current observation, P(Yt xt). The recur-sion is initialised with some distribution for the initial statep(xo). Once the sequence of filtering distribution is known,point estimates of the state can be obtained according to anyappropriate function, leading for example to the Maximum aPosteriori (MAP) estimate, arg maxxt p(xt Yt), and to theMinimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) estimate,fxtP(x Yt)dxt.The basic idea behind the particle filters is very simple.Starting with a weighted set of samples {x(i), w(i)J} l ap-proximately distributed according to p(xt- 1 Yt- 1), new sam-ples are generated from a suitably chosen proposal distribu-tion, which may depend on the previous state and the newmeasurements, i.e., x ( - qp (xt x i Yt), 1,. . ., N.To maintain a consistent sample the new importance weightsare set to() ( )p( lti) p((i) It(i))Wtc1(i qp(xt t (4)Up (,;Vt XMt ,Yt N i = 1. The new particle set {X Wi)}IN 1 iswith z7=1 tt tthen approximately distributed according to p(Xt Yk). Theperformance of the particle filter depends on the quality of theproposal distribution. In this paper, we use the state evolutionmodel p(xt xt- 1) as proposal distribution and this makes thenew importance weights in (4) become proportional to thecorresponding particle likelihoods. This implementation ofthe sequential Monte Carlo method corresponds to the boot-strap filter as proposed in [5]. This leads to a very simplealgorithm, requiring only the ability to simulate from the evo-lution model and to evaluate the likelihood.4. DISTRIBUTED TRACKING ALGORITHM FORMANEOUVARABLE SENSORSIn this section, we introduce a distributed tracking algorithmfor maneovrable sensors. Specifically, this algorithm providesthe Bayesian optimal target locations while maneouvring thesensors to 'best' positions. The cost involved in manevouringis based on physical constraints as well as constraints on costand resource consumption. This cost can computed using in-formation theoretic measures such statistical entropy or usingsimpler measures such as Mahalanobis or Eulidean measures.The entropy-based definition, while mathematically precise,is difficult to compute in practice since we need to have themeasurement before deciding how useful the measurement is.A more practical alternative is to estimate the usefulness of ameasurement based only on characteristics of a sensor such asits location or sensing modality. Such a distance measure canbe obtained using the Mahalnobis distance, a distance mea-sure normalised by the uncertainty covariance. This gives astatistical distance measure between a sensor node and the tar-get being tracked. In [6], similar distance measures are usedto solve the selecting the useful set of sensors out of all avail-able sensors.The algorithm developed in this paper assumes a semi-distributed architecture with feedback. For simplicity, in thispaper we assume that the number of sensors is fixed (equalto K) and the distributed processing is performed accordingto known order. Communication is required only betweenneighbouring sensors and between the last and the first sen-sors. Processing at any arbitrary time t starts from sensor1 and then sequentially repeated for each subsequent sensors.The sensor K contains the final results of distributed tracking.But as shown in the simulation section, due to the feedback ofsensor estimates, the variation in the accuracy of target posi-tion estimates is quite small (except between first and remain-ing sensors). Therefore, final estimates can be obtained fromany sensor other than the first one. The posterior distriubtionat sensor K at time t -1 serves as the prior for the sensor 1at time t.Let the state vector at time t is defined as Xt [(tx) gt']where gt and xo are the sensor locations and the target po-sition respectively. It is assumed that the initial locations ofsensors are distributed according to AV(go, or2). Here, go isthe initial sensor locations and o2 is the associated variance.Then the algorithm is started with particle filtering in the node1. The particles representing the predictive distribution at thenode 1 is given by (Tilde is used to denote the predictive sam-ples):t f t-1 ,U)gl(i) = gl(i) + V(i);9t gt-i + V1...,N(5)where X K(i)O are the posterior target samples of sensor Kat previoustime step, used as prior1for this node and vti)a tim step, prior (Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.U[-ms, ims]. The ms is the maximum speed of sensor (or aconstant proportional to the maximum speed).Next, the update step of the particle filtering is perfor-mated at the node. The update step is performed in two steps:one for the target state vector and the second one for thestate vector representing the sensor location. In the first up-date step, the posterior samples at time t is obtained fromresampling from particles (Kl(i0) i =1, , N. The re-sult of the resampling is the set of particles approximatingthe distribution of target trajectory at sensor 1 (denoted as(Xt t°)i=l... N):The following table explains the complete algorithm forthe sensor k:Table 1. PROPOSED DISTRIBUTED PARTICLE FILTER- Draw Rk [(xik(i)°)' gk(i)]' from the equation (5)if k = 1 or else from the equation (8) for i = 1: N.- Assign the particle, (xVi)°) a weight according to thesection 3 and resample for i = 1: N.- Assign the particle, g(i) a weight according to the (7)and obtain the resampled particles for i = 1: N.- Transmit the resampled particles to the sensor 1 ifk = K or else transmit to the sensor k + 1.These posteriori particles representing the target trajec-tory is used to calculate the likelihood weights in the secondupdate step for the sensor state vector. For example, if thesensors are to be positioned such that the distance between asensor and the target and the distance between two sensors inthe transmission link (This reduces the required transmissionpower and thereby providing a longer battery life) are simulta-neously to be minimised, then the corresponding cost functioncan be evaluted as follows. If S1 = E[x1(K)1 is taken as thetarget postion (calculated from the first resampling step) andg2 is the mean position of the sensor 2 (Sensor 1 only trans-mits to sensor 2), then the instantaneous cost correspondingto particle i at sensor 1 is given by,@( 1X(°) x) _(g (i) _Siy':-l(gi(i) _Si)- _21g1(i)(gl(i) _2).where E is the estimated covariance of the target position anda is a weight which gives importance to individual costs. Thisinstantaneous cost is used as the likelihood weight (after suit-able normalisation) in the resampling step for the particlescorresponding to the sensor location. This provides the pos-terior particles, g1(i) according to the likelihood weight givenby (7). This completes the processing in the sensor 1.In the subsequent sensors (i.e., k = 2,... , K), the priorsfor the state vector is obtained from the previous sensors (k1,... K -1) as shown below:Rk(i)OXtk (i)gt(x -l(i)O)k(i) + V(i);gt- 1 VtThese particles are used in the update step and it is is similarto the one in the sensor 1 for both target and sensor compo-nents of the state vector. It is to be noted that the ordering ofsensors is arbitrary and the communication links are requiredonly between the adjacent sensors and betwen the last one andthe first one. As the communications of samples representingany distribution is bandwidth-intensive, any low-cost imple-mentation of distributed fusion as proposed in [7], can be usedto reduce the huge communciaton overhead.5. SIMULATION RESULTSThe proposed algorithm is illustrated with simulations for thebearing-only tracking problem. Sensor manoeuvring is basedon the cost criteria (7). Simulations are also conducted forSequential Monte Carlo based tracking for fixed sensor sys-tems. The manoeuvaring system is simulated as explainedin [8]. All simulations assume the use of four sensors (K).Initially, these four sensors are located at positions, (20,20),(20,-20), (-20,-20) and (-20, 20). For the fixed sensor case, thesensors are permanently at these locations, denoted as node 1,2, 3 and 4 respectively. Simulations are repeated for ten dif-ferent target trajectories for a time duration of 1500 units. Theperformance criterion used is the average RMSE (Root MeanSquare Error). This is calculated at each sensor by averagingthe RMSE for the ten target trajectories.Figure 1 shows the simulation results for the average RMSEat four sensors (a = 0.9). As seen here, because of feedbackof information from previous sensors, the RMSE performaceimproves in the second node. But the improvements in subse-quent nodes are minimal (Note that RMSE curves for sensors2, 3 and 4 are closely spaced). Figure 2 shows the simula-tion results for the average RMSE for both fixed and manoeu-vrable cases (a = 1). As seen here, in the fixed case, thetracking is lost after the initial period while in the manoeu-vrable case, the distributed tracker closely follows the trajec-tory of the target. The superior performance of the proposedalgorithm is further illustrated by considering the value of theRMSE which is very small (less than 2m). It should be notedthat the RMSE study explained above is for ten trajectories.Figure 3 shows the tracking performance for one such tra-jectory. This figure shows the estimated trajectories from ma-noeuvrable and fixed distributed trackers and the actual trajec-tories. As seen here, the manoeuvrable tracker closely followsthe path of the target while the tracker with the fixed nodeslose the track after the target makes a sudden turn. One rea-son for the superior estimation performance of the proposedtracker is that as the sensor is very close to the target, theN1: 6(xl(o) xi(i)o)t ti=lP(xlmo 1 y -1) --t .yt . tAuthorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.250Actual Trajectory* Estimated - Proposed200 Estimated - Fixed sensors150Eo AlC: 100- 500 ,-50_-50Time (x 30)Fig. 1. Average RMSE at four sensor nodesbearing-only measurements have less uncertainty. The moreaccurate measurements thus improve the estimation accuracy.Sensor trajectories shown in figure 4 shows that four sensorsclosely follow the target trajectory as constrained by the costfunction.Node 4 (manoeuvrable)Node 4 (fixed)0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400x- coordinates (m)Fig. 3. Actual trajectory and estimated trajectories250Actual target trajectoryNode 1 trajectory200 Node 2 trajectoryNode 3 trajectoryV Node 4 trajectory150E' 100-8 50 F0-50_-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400x-coordinates (m)Fig. 4. Sensor trajectories00 500Time1000 1500Fig. 2. RMSE at the sensor node 4 for both manoeuvrable andfixed cases6. REFERENCES[1] P. Thomas, M.D. Bull, and G.R. Ravenscroft, "WMD hazardprediction- blending three Al techniques to produce a superiordefence capability," in Proc. 23rd SGAI International Confer-ence on Innovative Techniques and Applications ofArtificial In-telligence, 2003.[2] M. Karan, J. Wang, and S.E. Hammel, "Bearings-only track-ing with sea trail sonar data from multiple asynchronoussonobuoys," in Underwater Defence Technology Conference,1998.[3] A.D. Marrs, "Asynchronous multi-sensor tracking in clut-ter with uncertain sensor locations using Bayesian sequentialMonte Carlo methods," in Proc. ofIEEEAerospace Conference,Big Sky, MT, 2001, pp. 2171-2178.[4] A. Doucet, J.EG. de Freitas, and N.J. Gordon, Eds., SequentialMonte Carlo Methods in Practice, Springer-Verlag, New York,2001.[5] N. Gordon, D. Salmond, and A. Smith, "Novel approach tononlinear/ non-Gaussian Bayesian state estimation," IEE Proc. -F, vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 107-113, 1993.[6] F. Zhao, J. Shin, and J. Reich, "Information-driven dynamicsensosor collaboration," IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, vol.19, no. 2, pp. 61-72, March 2002.[7] X. Sheng, Y.-H. Hu, and P. Ramanathan, "Distributed parti-cle filter with GMM approximation for multiple targets localiza-tion and tracking in wireless sensor network," in Fourth Inter-national Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Net-works, 2005, pp. 181-188.[8] M. Coates, "Distributed particle filters for sensor networks," inInt. Symp. Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Berke-ley, California, 2004.1.8 F1.61.41.2LUC) 13 0.8180160140120Lw 1 00, 80604020Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.

Distributed tracking with sequential Monte Carlo methods for manoeuvrable sensors

                          Jaward, M. H., Bull, D. R., & Canagarajah, C. N. (2006). Distributedtracking with sequential Monte Carlo methods for manoeuvrable sensors. InIEEENonlinear Statistical Signal Processing Workshop 2006, Cambridge,UK. (pp. 113 - 116). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).10.1109/NSSPW.2006.4378832Link to published version (if available):10.1109/NSSPW.2006.4378832Link to publication record in Explore Bristol ResearchPDF-documentUniversity of Bristol - Explore Bristol ResearchGeneral rightsThis document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the publishedversion using the reference above. Full terms of use are available:http://www.bristol.ac.uk/pure/about/ebr-terms.htmlTake down policyExplore Bristol Research is a digital archive and the intention is that deposited content should not beremoved. However, if you believe that this version of the work breaches copyright law please contactopen-access@bristol.ac.uk and include the following information in your message:• Your contact details• Bibliographic details for the item, including a URL• An outline of the nature of the complaintOn receipt of your message the Open Access Team will immediately investigate your claim, make aninitial judgement of the validity of the claim and, where appropriate, withdraw the item in questionfrom public view.DISTRIBUTED TRACKING WITH SEQUENTIAL MONTE CARLO METHODS FORMANOEUVRABLE SENSORSM.H. Jaward, D. Bull and N. CanagarajahDepartment of Electrical & Electronic EngineeringUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UKm.h.jaward @bristol.ac.ukABSTRACTNonlinear distributed tracking for a single target is addressedin this paper. This problem consists of tracking a target of in-terest while moving the sensors to 'best' positions accordingto an critera appropriate for the problem. Both target track-ing and manoeuvring of sensors are carried out jointly using anovel Sequential Monte Carlo technique. The proposed tech-nique is illustrated using a bearing-only problem and simu-lations are used to compare the performance of the proposedtechnique with distributed tracking using fixed sensors.1. INTRODUCTIONSensors are valuable resources, making it imperative that theyare deployed in a manner that maximises their effectiveness.This requires the determination of the optimal location andmotion of the sensor swarm within the environment underconsideration. As explained in [1], ideal sensor placementis a problem exhibiting non-linear combinatorial propertiessince the position of each individual sensor in the set of avail-able sensors will affect the optimal placement of the othermembers of the set. Therefore, for a even a small number ofsensors it is computationally onerous to exhaustively searchall possible solutions for the optimum and the problem be-comes one of search-based optimisation. Reference [1] re-ports that Genetic Algorithms (GA) are the most efficient op-timisation techniques compared with other methods such asrandom search, dynamic hill climbing and simulated anneal-ing. But the target tracking and the sensor location optimisa-tion are done separately. Karan et al. [2] consider the problemof tracking with multiple asynchronous drifting sonobuoysusing an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). Marrs [3] solves theabove problem using a sequential Monte Carlo method.This paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents thesystem model used in this paper and section 3 reviews brieflythe Sequential Monte Carlo on which the proposed algorithmis based on. Section 4 introduces the proposed distributedThis work forms a part of the DIF-DTC project whose funding and sup-port is gratefully acknowledged.tracking algorithm and the performace of the proposed algor-tihm is illustrated in section 5.2. SYSTEM MODELIn this paper, we are concerned with the problem of perform-ing on-line state estimation for multi-dimensional signals thatcan be modelled using Markovian state-space models that arenonlinear and non-Gaussian. The unobserved global state{xt; t C N} is modelled as a Markov process with initialdistribution p(xo) and transition probability p(xt xt 1). Theobservations {Yt; t C N} are assumed to be conditionallyindependent (in time) given the process xt and of marginaldistribution P(Yt xt). We denote by Xt {x0,... xt} andby Yt {Yo,.... Yt }, respectively, the system state and theobservations up to time t. The measurements Yt are recordedby K sensors, and we use yk to denote the subset of observa-tions made by the k-th sensor.This work jointly estimates the sensor locations while track-ing. Although the algorithm developed is valid for widerrange of applications, we concentrate our investigation on theproblem of tracking a manoeuvaring target in a 2-D plane.The manoeuvring target motion is modelled using a Markovjump system of the following form:Xt = f (xt 1,Ut,Vt) (1)Here f (.) is the system function and ut is a discrete time in-dex indicating different modes of the target. The augmentedstate vector of 2-D positions of the target and sensors is xt andvt is the noise term. The proposed algorithm is illustrated forthe bearing only tracking problem. This problem assumes thatwe have nodes which are capable of measuring the angle ofthe target's position relative to the sensor node t.3. PARTICLE FILTER ALGORITHMSequential Monte Carlo techniques also known as particle fil-tering and condensation algorithm have been been describedin length in the literature [4]. In what follows, we give a sum-1-4244-0581-5/06/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE.Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.mary of the framework and conceptual ideas behind the se-quential Monte Carlo techniques.For tracking the target of interest, the posterior state dis-tribution p(xt Zt), also known as filtering distribution has tobe calculated at each time step. In Bayesian sequential esti-mation the filtering distribution can be computed according tothe two step recursion:prediction stepp(xt Yt_j) = xiPxt_-)p(xt_ 1Yt_ )dxt_1, (2)andfiltering stepP(Xt IYt) cx P(Yt lXtWP(t IYt- 1), (3)where the prediction step follows from marginalisation, andthe new filtering distribution is obtained through a direct ap-plication of the Bayes' rule. This recursion requires the spec-ification of a dynamic model describing the state evolution,p(xt xt- 1) and a model that gives the likelihood of any statein the light of the current observation, P(Yt xt). The recur-sion is initialised with some distribution for the initial statep(xo). Once the sequence of filtering distribution is known,point estimates of the state can be obtained according to anyappropriate function, leading for example to the Maximum aPosteriori (MAP) estimate, arg maxxt p(xt Yt), and to theMinimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) estimate,fxtP(x Yt)dxt.The basic idea behind the particle filters is very simple.Starting with a weighted set of samples {x(i), w(i)J} l ap-proximately distributed according to p(xt- 1 Yt- 1), new sam-ples are generated from a suitably chosen proposal distribu-tion, which may depend on the previous state and the newmeasurements, i.e., x (-qp (xt x i Yt), 1,. . ., N.To maintain a consistent sample the new importance weightsare set to() ( )p( lti) p((i) It(i))Wtc1(i qp(xt t (4)Up (,;Vt XMt ,Yt N i = 1. The new particle set {X Wi)}IN 1 iswith z7=1 tt tthen approximately distributed according to p(Xt Yk). Theperformance of the particle filter depends on the quality of theproposal distribution. In this paper, we use the state evolutionmodel p(xt xt- 1) as proposal distribution and this makes thenew importance weights in (4) become proportional to thecorresponding particle likelihoods. This implementation ofthe sequential Monte Carlo method corresponds to the boot-strap filter as proposed in [5]. This leads to a very simplealgorithm, requiring only the ability to simulate from the evo-lution model and to evaluate the likelihood.4. DISTRIBUTED TRACKING ALGORITHM FORMANEOUVARABLE SENSORSIn this section, we introduce a distributed tracking algorithmfor maneovrable sensors. Specifically, this algorithm providesthe Bayesian optimal target locations while maneouvring thesensors to 'best' positions. The cost involved in manevouringis based on physical constraints as well as constraints on costand resource consumption. This cost can computed using in-formation theoretic measures such statistical entropy or usingsimpler measures such as Mahalanobis or Eulidean measures.The entropy-based definition, while mathematically precise,is difficult to compute in practice since we need to have themeasurement before deciding how useful the measurement is.A more practical alternative is to estimate the usefulness of ameasurement based only on characteristics of a sensor such asits location or sensing modality. Such a distance measure canbe obtained using the Mahalnobis distance, a distance mea-sure normalised by the uncertainty covariance. This gives astatistical distance measure between a sensor node and the tar-get being tracked. In [6], similar distance measures are usedto solve the selecting the useful set of sensors out of all avail-able sensors.The algorithm developed in this paper assumes a semi-distributed architecture with feedback. For simplicity, in thispaper we assume that the number of sensors is fixed (equalto K) and the distributed processing is performed accordingto known order. Communication is required only betweenneighbouring sensors and between the last and the first sen-sors. Processing at any arbitrary time t starts from sensor1 and then sequentially repeated for each subsequent sensors.The sensor K contains the final results of distributed tracking.But as shown in the simulation section, due to the feedback ofsensor estimates, the variation in the accuracy of target posi-tion estimates is quite small (except between first and remain-ing sensors). Therefore, final estimates can be obtained fromany sensor other than the first one. The posterior distriubtionat sensor K at time t -1 serves as the prior for the sensor 1at time t.Let the state vector at time t is defined as Xt [(tx) gt']where gt and xo are the sensor locations and the target po-sition respectively. It is assumed that the initial locations ofsensors are distributed according to AV(go, or2). Here, go isthe initial sensor locations and o2 is the associated variance.Then the algorithm is started with particle filtering in the node1. The particles representing the predictive distribution at thenode 1 is given by (Tilde is used to denote the predictive sam-ples):t f t-1 ,U)gl(i) = gl(i) + V(i);9t gt-i + V1...,N(5)where X K(i)O are the posterior target samples of sensor Kat previoustime step, used as prior1for this node and vti)a tim step, prior (Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.U[-ms, ims]. The ms is the maximum speed of sensor (or aconstant proportional to the maximum speed).Next, the update step of the particle filtering is perfor-mated at the node. The update step is performed in two steps:one for the target state vector and the second one for thestate vector representing the sensor location. In the first up-date step, the posterior samples at time t is obtained fromresampling from particles (Kl(i0) i =1, , N. The re-sult of the resampling is the set of particles approximatingthe distribution of target trajectory at sensor 1 (denoted as(Xt t°)i=l... N):The following table explains the complete algorithm forthe sensor k:Table 1. PROPOSED DISTRIBUTED PARTICLE FILTER- Draw Rk [(xik(i)°)' gk(i)]' from the equation (5)if k = 1 or else from the equation (8) for i = 1: N.- Assign the particle, (xVi)°) a weight according to thesection 3 and resample for i = 1: N.- Assign the particle, g(i) a weight according to the (7)and obtain the resampled particles for i = 1: N.- Transmit the resampled particles to the sensor 1 ifk = K or else transmit to the sensor k + 1.These posteriori particles representing the target trajec-tory is used to calculate the likelihood weights in the secondupdate step for the sensor state vector. For example, if thesensors are to be positioned such that the distance between asensor and the target and the distance between two sensors inthe transmission link (This reduces the required transmissionpower and thereby providing a longer battery life) are simulta-neously to be minimised, then the corresponding cost functioncan be evaluted as follows. If S1 = E[x1(K)1 is taken as thetarget postion (calculated from the first resampling step) andg2 is the mean position of the sensor 2 (Sensor 1 only trans-mits to sensor 2), then the instantaneous cost correspondingto particle i at sensor 1 is given by,@( 1X(°) x)_(g (i) _Siy':-l(gi(i) _Si)- _21g1(i)(gl(i) _2).where E is the estimated covariance of the target position anda is a weight which gives importance to individual costs. Thisinstantaneous cost is used as the likelihood weight (after suit-able normalisation) in the resampling step for the particlescorresponding to the sensor location. This provides the pos-terior particles, g1(i) according to the likelihood weight givenby (7). This completes the processing in the sensor 1.In the subsequent sensors (i.e., k = 2,... , K), the priorsfor the state vector is obtained from the previous sensors (k1,... K -1) as shown below:Rk(i)OXtk (i)gt(x -l(i)O)k(i) + V(i);gt- 1 VtThese particles are used in the update step and it is is similarto the one in the sensor 1 for both target and sensor compo-nents of the state vector. It is to be noted that the ordering ofsensors is arbitrary and the communication links are requiredonly between the adjacent sensors and betwen the last one andthe first one. As the communications of samples representingany distribution is bandwidth-intensive, any low-cost imple-mentation of distributed fusion as proposed in [7], can be usedto reduce the huge communciaton overhead.5. SIMULATION RESULTSThe proposed algorithm is illustrated with simulations for thebearing-only tracking problem. Sensor manoeuvring is basedon the cost criteria (7). Simulations are also conducted forSequential Monte Carlo based tracking for fixed sensor sys-tems. The manoeuvaring system is simulated as explainedin [8]. All simulations assume the use of four sensors (K).Initially, these four sensors are located at positions, (20,20),(20,-20), (-20,-20) and (-20, 20). For the fixed sensor case, thesensors are permanently at these locations, denoted as node 1,2, 3 and 4 respectively. Simulations are repeated for ten dif-ferent target trajectories for a time duration of 1500 units. Theperformance criterion used is the average RMSE (Root MeanSquare Error). This is calculated at each sensor by averagingthe RMSE for the ten target trajectories.Figure 1 shows the simulation results for the average RMSEat four sensors (a = 0.9). As seen here, because of feedbackof information from previous sensors, the RMSE performaceimproves in the second node. But the improvements in subse-quent nodes are minimal (Note that RMSE curves for sensors2, 3 and 4 are closely spaced). Figure 2 shows the simula-tion results for the average RMSE for both fixed and manoeu-vrable cases (a = 1). As seen here, in the fixed case, thetracking is lost after the initial period while in the manoeu-vrable case, the distributed tracker closely follows the trajec-tory of the target. The superior performance of the proposedalgorithm is further illustrated by considering the value of theRMSE which is very small (less than 2m). It should be notedthat the RMSE study explained above is for ten trajectories.Figure 3 shows the tracking performance for one such tra-jectory. This figure shows the estimated trajectories from ma-noeuvrable and fixed distributed trackers and the actual trajec-tories. As seen here, the manoeuvrable tracker closely followsthe path of the target while the tracker with the fixed nodeslose the track after the target makes a sudden turn. One rea-son for the superior estimation performance of the proposedtracker is that as the sensor is very close to the target, theN1: 6(xl(o) xi(i)o)t ti=lP(xlmo 1 y -1) --t .yt . tAuthorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.250Actual Trajectory* Estimated - Proposed200 Estimated - Fixed sensors150Eo AlC: 100- 500 ,-50_-50Time (x 30)Fig. 1. Average RMSE at four sensor nodesbearing-only measurements have less uncertainty. The moreaccurate measurements thus improve the estimation accuracy.Sensor trajectories shown in figure 4 shows that four sensorsclosely follow the target trajectory as constrained by the costfunction.Node 4 (manoeuvrable)Node 4 (fixed)0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400x- coordinates (m)Fig. 3. Actual trajectory and estimated trajectories250Actual target trajectoryNode 1 trajectory200 Node 2 trajectoryNode 3 trajectoryV Node 4 trajectory150E' 100-8 50 F0-50_-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400x-coordinates (m)Fig. 4. Sensor trajectories00 500Time1000 1500Fig. 2. RMSE at the sensor node 4 for both manoeuvrable andfixed cases6. REFERENCES[1] P. Thomas, M.D. Bull, and G.R. Ravenscroft, "WMD hazardprediction- blending three Al techniques to produce a superiordefence capability," in Proc. 23rd SGAI International Confer-ence on Innovative Techniques and Applications ofArtificial In-telligence, 2003.[2] M. Karan, J. Wang, and S.E. Hammel, "Bearings-only track-ing with sea trail sonar data from multiple asynchronoussonobuoys," in Underwater Defence Technology Conference,1998.[3] A.D. Marrs, "Asynchronous multi-sensor tracking in clut-ter with uncertain sensor locations using Bayesian sequentialMonte Carlo methods," in Proc. ofIEEEAerospace Conference,Big Sky, MT, 2001, pp. 2171-2178.[4] A. Doucet, J.EG. de Freitas, and N.J. Gordon, Eds., SequentialMonte Carlo Methods in Practice, Springer-Verlag, New York,2001.[5] N. Gordon, D. Salmond, and A. Smith, "Novel approach tononlinear/ non-Gaussian Bayesian state estimation," IEE Proc. -F, vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 107-113, 1993.[6] F. Zhao, J. Shin, and J. Reich, "Information-driven dynamicsensosor collaboration," IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, vol.19, no. 2, pp. 61-72, March 2002.[7] X. Sheng, Y.-H. Hu, and P. Ramanathan, "Distributed parti-cle filter with GMM approximation for multiple targets localiza-tion and tracking in wireless sensor network," in Fourth Inter-national Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Net-works, 2005, pp. 181-188.[8] M. Coates, "Distributed particle filters for sensor networks," inInt. Symp. Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Berke-ley, California, 2004.1.8 F1.61.41.2LUC) 13 0.8180160140120Lw 1 00, 80604020Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. Downloaded on January 23, 2009 at 05:44 from IEEE Xplore.  Restrictions apply.

Asynchronous multi-sensor tracking in clutter with uncertain sensor locations using Bayesian sequential Monte Carlo methods,&quot; in

Bearings-only tracking with sea trail sonar data from multiple asynchronous sonobuoys,&quot;

Distributed particle filter with GMM approximation for multiple targets localization and tracking in wireless sensor network,&quot;

Distributed particle filters for sensor networks,&quot; in Int. Symp. Information Processing in Sensor Networks,

Eds., Sequential Monte Carlo Methods in Practice,

Information-driven dynamic sensosor collaboration,&quot;

Novel approach to nonlinear/ non-Gaussian Bayesian state estimation,&quot;

WMD hazard prediction- blending three Al techniques to produce a superior defence capability,&quot; in

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Distributed tracking with sequential Monte Carlo methods for manoeuvrable sensors

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