Bojcun, Anna M.

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Literary Onomastics of Contemporary Slavic Novels Anna M. Bojcun This paper deals with contemporary onomastics in the novels of three writers, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, the noted Russian novelist; Michael Osad�yj, a young Ukrainian writer and Andrew C. Romanski, a Polish author. 141 Works of the authors which contain similar themes have been chosen for the analysis. The themes include the Soviet judicial system and life in Soviet prisons and hard ·labour camps in which each one of the three writers under discussion has at one time been imprisoned. The novels are: y p�rvom kruge (The First Circle) by Solzhenitsyn, Bilmo (Th� Cataract) by Osad�yj, and Wiezniowie nocy (Prisoners of Night) by Romanski. The following functions of literary onomastics are examined: 1 ) The titles of the novels. 2) Names related to the characters in action (couleur historique). 3) Names related to the place of action (couleur locale). 4) Names related to the emotions, e. g., anger, 142 Bojcun 2 hate, irony (couleur emotiff). The general investigation of stylistic functions follows the schema elaborated by Dr. Jaroslav Rudnyckyj in his study 11 Functions of Proper Names in Literary Work, 111 but with the addition of allegorical meaning of titles. Let us closely examine Solzhenitsyn •s novel. In a manner similar to Dante's Inferno, hell in this novel is used as a metaphor for the special prisons in which political prisoners were held. These prisons were scientific research centres, staffed with top calibre I scientists who were, nevertheless, essentially prisoners. The Very title of the book, The First Circle, immediately suggests that Solzhenitsyn will relate events of primary importance. I cite the words of the author: r•ve lived fifty-two years, I've recovered from fatal illnesses, I've been married to pretty women, I1ve had sons, I've received academic prizes -- but never have I been so blessedly happy as I am today! Where have I landed? They won't be driving me out into icy water tomorrow! An ounce and a half of butter! Black bread -- out on the table! They don•t forbid books! You can shave yourself! The guards don't beat the zeks. What kind of great day is this? May­be I've died? Maybe this is a dream? Perhaps I'm in heaven? 143 Bojcun 3 1 1No, dear Sir,11 said Rubin, 1 1you are, just as you previously were, in hell. But you have risen to its best and highest circle -- the first circle . . .  1 1 2 The appellation of the second book, The Cataract, is also explained by the author himself: We are surrounded by lanterns. Only lanterns. They are cleverly placed along the path we were told to walk. The path is cleverly paved with light-reflect­ing cobble stones which, like a magnet, draw the eye ... It somehow gets inside you and imprisons your being. It makes you feel exceedingly important and . . .  empty . . . You can walk this illuminated path a year, two, then a lifetime . . .  Suddenly I wanted to see what was beyond those lanterns . . .  Only for a second, from the corner of my eye, but this act cost me dearly. Little people began scurrying around and focused on me the light from all the lanterns. It blinded me . . .  I became powerless in the hellish trap . . .  ! began writing all kinds of words in the sand. No, only one word -individual. At first I wrote it in small letters. Then in capitals: INDIVIDUAL. I began to laugh, so hard that I cried like a small child . . . 3 The paved rqad and the lanterns are used to symbolize the dogma of Communism and the doctrines that hold some people in bondage their entire life. Only those, who know how to look beyond the projectors - beyond the doctrines -are able to see the truth. Romanski also mentions Dante. He says that the hell depicted by Dante is heaven compared to the concentration 144 Bojcun 4 camps in which only a few hundred Polish army officers out of more than ten thousand originally sent there, survived. All three titles are metaphors through which each writer attempts to transmit his allegorical approach to the problems presented in the novel. Each author attempts to stir up the reader's emotion and to awaken his sympathy for those who suffer. 2. Names related to the character in action. It is possible that antroponyms and toponyms, in com­bination with other names, can evoke in the reader a state of mind or an idea that the author wished to evoke. For example, let us take the adage, "All roads lead to Rome. 11 Under the name Rome, one can understand every capital, or even every problem that can be approached by various ways or means. Therefore onomastics play an important role in every literary work. The author diligently selects names, which can express his thoughts and feelings, or which may portray events, problems, or characteristics of the main persons in the novel. Bojcun 5 The names of leading characters have symbolic mean­ings in each of the three novels under discussion. Solzhenitsyn, for example, names his heroes thus: the main character's name is Ner1in, from the word r�a (rust). Thus the main character is one who does not rust but is always clean, dexterous and as sharp as a steel blade. Another character is a professor who is a brilliant philologist. He is given the name Rubin, from ruby, the precious stone. 145 A renowned mathematician who planned the dyke on the Dneiper river is called Celnov, from the word �elo, mean­ing forehead in Old Church Slavonic. Thus he is character­ized as a wise person. The head mechanic is called Dor6din, and this name derives from the adjective dor6dnyj, meaning portly or copulent. Solzhenitsyn calls the prisoner who destroyed his ballot paper, Xorobryj, which means brave. All the above-mentioned characters are individuals who are honest and upright and imprisoned for their belief in truth and veracity. They are also individualist in that they follow their own mind. 146 Bojcun 6 On the other hand, characters that are merely tools of the party and those that blindly follow the orders given by the regime, have laughable surnames in keeping with their servile nature. For instance, the chief of Stalin's per­sonal secretariat is named Poskrebysev from the noun skreb6k, a general term for tools with which dirty jobs are done, e.g. , skrebnfca is a horse comb. Since the action of The First Circle takes place in the last years of the Stalin era, Solzhenitsyn gives the dictator several ironical names such as: The Greatest of the Great, The Wisest of Wise, The Plowman, The Master, The Tyrant and The Generalissimo. The Cataract is a recent diary that came to the West in 1970. The. diary deals with the persecution, trial and conviction of Ukrainian intellectuals in the 19601s. All names in the diary are real. Ironically, the two leadi characters, Osad�yj, the prisoner, and Halkev�) the chief interrogator, have very meaningful surnames. Osad�yj's surname derives from the verb osidaty meaning 1 1to settle,1 1 and Halkevy� •s name derives from the noun h�lka which means 147 Bojcun 7 a 1 1 Crow, 1 1  or from the verb halyty meaning 1 1 to hurry. 1 1  The inquisitor Halkevy�, in reality, both laughs loudly and hurries. The author of Prisoners of Night gives his heroes significant surnames, using a technique similar to that used by Solzhenitsyn. The main character, the dedicated physician Wolski, has a surname which is derived from the Polish word wola, meaning willpower. Dr. Wolski works diligently in the prisoner of war camps amidst appalling hygienic conditions, and in so far as he is able, he brings relief to the men dying there. The Russian woman doctor's name is Sa�anova. Her name is taken from the noun sa�en•, which refers to a unit of measure, the foot. She is mild in nature and small in stature. There are many historical names which the three authors mention in their works, but only one figure is selected by all three as a symbol of imprisonment, namely, the figure of Catherine the Great, empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. Here is what Solzhenitsyn says: 148 Bojcun 8 What can one say about this serviceable institution? It traces its origin back to the barracks in the time of Catherine the Great. In that cruel age, the Empress did not spare bricks for its fortified walls and vaulted ceilings.4 Romanski gives the Empress credit for prison soup, called balanda. I quote: This word (balanda) meaning a meal in the prison, like the prison itself, dates from the time of Catherine the Great.5 Osad�yj offers more detailed characteristics of Catherine: Catherine II  knew how to love men, but she also knew how to hate them. How terrible is the hatred of an innocent woman. Twenty-five years in a 'stone sack.' My hunchbacked old man, how could you have survived it? .. . What aside from prison soup, fed your sick and helpless body? What heated your fragile legs and your lax mouth. Tell me what was Christ's suffering compared to yours? He died on a hilltop. He saw great distances before him. The sun shone on Him and He breathed fresh air. He died easily in His suffer­ing, but you did not die. You l�ved and this was a suffering greater than Christ's. Osad�yj is referring to Petro Kal'ny�evs•kyj (1698-1803), the last hetman of the Ukrainian Cossack State, Zaporozjan Si�, which was destroyed by Catherine the Great in 1775. 149 Bojcun 9 3. Names related to the place of action. There are many toponyms and names of prisons and camps but most of them do not have a symbolic or stylistic function. Solzhenitsyn gives a long list of prisons in Moscow, which according to him are "evenly distributed throughout the capital, so situated that it is not far from any point in the city to one or another of them. 1 17 The first is Marvino Special Prison, where the action of The First Circle takes place; Lefortovo Prison, where selected prisoners are brought to visit their relatives; Butryskaja Prison, some sections of which were rebuilt and redecorated for the visit of Mrs. Roosevelt; Taganka Prison, a prison for thieves; and finally Lubjanka Prison, the largest prison in Moscow. Lubjanka is also the most famous prison because it is there that political prisoners are usually incarcerated. There, there exists that passage, well known to the citizens of the USSR, and described by Solzhenitsyn as follows: Through this passage for a third of a century all prisoners of the central prison had been led: Cadets, Bojcun 10 Social Revolutionaries, Anarchists, Octobrists, Mens he vi ks, Bo 1 she vi ks, Sa ni kov, Ja kubovi �, Kut�·pov, R�mzin, Sulgin, Bux�rin, Ryk6v, Tuna�evskyj, Profes­sor Pletnev, Vavilov, Field Marshall Paulus, General Kr�snov, world famous scientists and poets .. . First the criminals themselves, then their wives, then their daughters. The prisoners were led up to an equally famous desk, where each of them signed the thick book of 'Registered Lives• through a slot in a metal plate, without seeing the name above or below his own. 8 150 Osad�yj mentions the transitional prisons in Lviv, Kiev, and Kharkiv, and also the hard labour camp (No. 11) in the Kazakhstanian village called Jatwas. Romanski des­cribes a northern camp (No. 90) in the autonomous republic of Komi, where there are more prisoners than there are member� of the Komi tribe. The name of Russia and of the Russian people is fre­quently used in_a figurative manner in the three novels. Thus it is appropriate to consider Russia as a geographical toponym. Solzhenitsyn sees the Russian people in a manner similar to the way Stalin, a Georgian, saw them: In the thirties, for the sake of politics alone, he had resurrected the forgotten word r6dina - homeland ... Yet, with the years he himself actually-c:ame to enjoy pronouncing "Russia" and 1 r6dina.1  He had come 151 Bojcun 11 like the Russian people very much. These were the people who never betrayed him, who went hungry for so many years ... who had calmly gone forth to war, to the camps, into all kinds of hardship, and had never re­belled. After the victory, Stalin had said with com­plete sincerity that the Russian people possess a clear mind, a staunch character and patience.9 Osad�yj gives an interesting comparison of the Russian and the Ukrainian character: The Ukraine stares at the prisoner with large eyes! Then she hurriedly turns him away. The convoy of prisoners seems to paralyze her face. Ukraine is afraid of the prisoner. She tries to avoid him ... Russia is no match for Ukraine. Russia not only loves the prisoner, she also treats him with true respect ... Russia does not spare for prisoners neither bread nor torture ... lO Romanski concludes with the following: The mission of today's Soviet Russia does not differ from the mission of the eighteenth-century Russia of Peter I, na�ely, to subordinate ancient and small nations of Europe; to conquer Asia; to push England away from the Asian continent; to master the world ... ll 4. Names related to the emotions. All three authors champion truth and justice. At some stage in their lives each of them had been the victim of an unconstitutional trial. Not surprisingly then, 152 Bojcun 12 of their works contains a parody of the Soviet judicial procedure. Both Solzhenitsyn and Osad�yj call their trials a comedy, and their judges, comedians. Solzhenitsyn pre-sents a tria 1 of •• a traitor pri nee. 11 This work is a sop-histicated satire and includes ridiculous imitation of Soviet life. Solzhenitsyn pretends that the defendant is Ihor, the hero of the epic poem known as "Lay of Ihor•s Campaign.11 This poem which has an unknown author, is an account of a heroic campaign which Ihor Svjatoslavy�, a prince of Kievan Rus', made against the Polovci in 1185. Solzhenitsyn's irony is at its peak when he writes: On the basis of the above, Olgovi�, Ihor Svjatoslavy�, born 1151, a native of Kiev, . • .  serving in the position of troop commander with the rank of Prince, decorated with the order of Viking of the first degree, the Red Sun, and,the medal of the Gold Shield, is accused of the following: That he wilfully executed vile treason against his country, combined with sabotage, espionage, and col­laboration over a period of many years with the Polovcjan Khan Kon�ak ... l2 This is ironical because, for centuries, Prince Ihor, had been the symbol of the soldier committed to protecting and upholding the safety and honour of the Kievan Rus1, his Bojcun 13 country. Osad�yj describes his trial thus: A holy Inquisition. The Middle Ages threw it up on a high bank, unreachable and untouchable$.The Judges judge. The Judges doze. The public is banned from the trials so that they will not prevent their dozing . . .  I object to the closed session of the court. The constitution of the USSR and the 20th clause of the code of criminal procedure guarantee that trials of this type must be open. The court stands contrary to the constitution and the code and that is why I con­sider this court not in session, decline to testify and am presenting an affidavit on the matter. 153 This was like lightning out of a clear sky. It jar­red the sleepy judges . .. The prosecutor jumped up, as if he had been burned and threw the affidavit into the face of Vja�eslav �ornovol. "You are an enemy, " he shouted, gasping wi nger . . .  1 1Take him out.. . him out immediately 1 1  • • • •  The second witness, answers Q. A. Q. questions with i "Did you Horyn' ?" "No. I d 1 1But you did a ia P. , a teacher, irony. -So vi articles from Myxajlo an si ca of Ukrainian schools from m?u A. "Yes, I took it. But is that an anti arti cl II Q. 1 1 What you mean by • Is is anti-Sovi '? Di you read i II A. 1 1Yes, I it! But it actually II on 't who to a Q. Q A. i lost s c vi y at s � even 1 a in Bojcun 14 Crimean told us the '154 Shloma, of the Sovi j i al Ihor as a ment by the Soviet they returned home Second World Germans, were for treason, onage or Osad�yj shows how the on and how Bojcun 1 5  zhenitsyn uses Prince the unpardonable treat­its own soldiers who, when ng valia y in havi i by twenty or more in prison 1 on enemy. al prosecutors vi ate the assume guilt of the Sovi cons defendant it i even proved. Romanski who although tern, were never s cal names I on. i a i an es, Soviet sys­Y names serve ce. nee Ihor, i people s onal Communi Russian 156 Bojcun 16 chauvinistic Communism. Each author attempts show not only the unfairness of such judicial actions, but also their senselessness. This type of judicial persecution, least greatly hinders, the a , or at of in-dividual work in all spheres of creativi , whether it be research, art, poetry or drama. Here, according the writers, is where nation and its people lose most. Meanwhile, this type of j icial system gives immense powers to men who are short on principles and courage, to men who are prepared to use fake a unconstitution-al convictions to further their personal, petty ambitions. Dante•s was a summa on of the Middle Ages, a protest i esi cal on The novels under consi ce a s lar All three are inst s innocent people agai i al on and violence which they see as i in the et Bojcun 17 Conclusion The main thing I have tried to show in this paper is that the names of characters play important roles in the three novels chosen for discussion. The authors usually give their positive characters good, sincere and meani 157 ful names. Negative characters and those who lack in­dividualistic qualities have funny, ironical or ridiculous names. Historical names are treated differently by the authors. Often the writers see some historical name or personage as representative of the same idea, i. e., it evokes similar symbolic imagery in all of them. Dante1s Inferno is accepted by all them as the ultimate linguistic function of figure of Catherine the siders her to be a symbol men. negative. of Russia. man's enslavement other The styli c function of the toponym Russia and the Russian people differs from wri wri zhenitsyn, without doubt, a Russian patriot, gives to his nation only 158 Bojcun 18 the very best characteristics. This is in contrast to the non-Russian authors who focus on Russia's negative qualities. Osad�yj, a Ukrainian, sees Russia as a conqueror and chauvinist. Romanski, a Pole, speaks of Russian jingoism and imperi a 1 ism. On the basis of my investigation of 637 antroponyms and toponyms, of which only 123 were used in this study, it seems that each author's background, philosophy and nationality plays a part in his use of onomastics. He uses names according to his point of view, his emotions and his feelings. Anna M. Bojcun Bojcun 19  NOTES lRudnyckyj, J.B.: •still und Formprobleme in der Literatur,' Heidelberg, 1959, pp. 378-383. 2solzhenitsyn, A. : The First Circle, Transl. P. Whitney, Harper & Row, New York, 1968, p. 8. 3osad�yj, M.: Bilmo, "Smoloskyp, .. Paris, 1970, p. 8. 4The First Circle, p. 327. 5Romanski, A. : Prisoners of Night, Orbis, London, 1956' p. 15. 6s i 1 mo, p • 40. 7The First Circle, p. 209. 8Ibid., p. 162. glbid., p. 115. 1 Os i 1 mo , p. 87. 11Prisoners of Night, p. 139. 12rhe First Circle, p. 303. 13Bilmo, pp. 64-65. 14Ibid., p. 66. 15Prisoners of Night, pp. 173-174. 159 

Literary Onomastics of Contemporary Slavic Novels

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Literary Onomastics of Contemporary Slavic Novels

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