Benefit sharing and environmental sustainability in policy and practice: the commercialisation of the resurrection bush (Myrothamnus flabellifolius) in Southern Africa

Abstract

The trade of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), also known as biotrade, has existed for hundreds of years - as has the traditional knowledge associated with such products. More recently, this form of trade has advanced to include genetic resource components found within natural resources (bioprospecting). International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Nagoya Protocol came into force in 1993 and 2010 respectively, to ensure that biological diversity is conserved, sustainably utilised, and that the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources and/or associated traditional knowledge are shared in an equitable manner. In practice, however, there is a lack of evidence to suggest whether the provisions of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol are being adequately implemented and achieved. This research focuses on the commercialisation of the resurrection bush (Myrothamnus flabellifolius) in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa and critically evaluates how the requirements of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol are applied. The resurrection bush spans a number of countries and has been used traditionally by a variety of ethnic communities residing in Africa. Traditional medicinal uses for the resurrection bush include using the plant to treat colds and flu, scurvy, coughs, abdominal pain, epilepsy, and asthma. This study aims to uncover and understand the way in which benefit sharing and environmental sustainability are interpreted and implemented in various resurrection bush commercialisation approaches. Six objectives are articulated to achieve this aim: (1) to review the historical use and traditional knowledge associated with the resurrection bush; (2) to describe the different ways the resurrection bush is commercialised and the different processes each commercialisation strategy follows; (3) to describe the actors involved in the different resurrection bush commercialisation strategies and their roles in the commercialisation process; (4) to explore, within each commercialisation strategy, how commercial actors gain access to resources; (5) to describe and analyse the range of benefits derived from each commercialisation approach; and (6) to assess the policy implications and practical applications of current resurrection bush commercialisation approaches. This research adopted a qualitative case study methodological approach, in which 26 key informant interviews and 137 semi-structured harvester interviews were conducted in Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. The key informants consisted of private companies, NGOs, and government officials across all three countries. Interviews with these informants were carried out to determine the diversity of commercialisation approaches associated with the resurrection bush, the actors involved, the ways in which commercial entities gain access to resources, how benefits are shared, and what measures are put in place for environmental sustainability. Further interviews were conducted with resurrection bush collectors in Namibia and Zimbabwe to review the historical and traditional uses associated with the resurrection bush. Understanding these uses provides insight into the types of agreements developed for its commercialisation and associated environmental, social and economic benefits. It was found that there are three commercialisation approaches associated with the resurrection bush across Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. They are: (1) Informal trade, where harvesters sell raw material directly to consumers based on informal, verbal agreements; (2) Biotrade, where the value chain is longer and consists of more formal agreements; and (3) Bioprospecting, where research and development of the resurrection bush is a strong component, involving negotiations with harvesters and formal written agreements. Several key findings emerged to inform current and future commercialisation approaches. The inadequate implementation of regulatory frameworks within each commercialisation approach has negatively impacted harvesters and overall economic growth. Harvesters are not receiving maximum benefits from commercialisation due to elite capture of benefits from resurrection bush cultivation sites and significant profit margins on end products. Traditional knowledge holders are not adequately compensated and acknowledged for their innovations and practices due to the absence of sufficient historical records of traditional knowledge, and cooperation between countries and communities who share resources which are commonly used. Long-term conservation efforts associated with the resurrection bush are lacking in all commercialisation approaches due the belief that because there is an abundance of the resource in the wild, additional conservation measures are not needed