Proliferative diabetic retinopathy is a complication of diabetes that can eventually lead to blindness. Early identification of this complication reduces the risk of blindness by initiating timely treatment. We report the utility of pattern analysis tools linked with a simple linear discriminant analysis that not only identifies new vessel growth in the retinal fundus but also localises the area of pathology. Ten fluorescein images were analysed using seven feature descriptors including area, perimeter, circularity, curvature, entropy, wavelet second moment and the correlation dimension. Our results indicate that traditional features such as area or perimeter measures of neovascularisation associated with proliferative retinopathy were not sensitive enough to detect early proliferative retinopathy (SNR = 0.76, 0.75 respectively). The wavelet second moment provided the best discrimination with a SNR of 1.17. Combining second moment, curvature and global correlation dimension provided a 100% discrimination (SNR = 1)

Cesar, R.M., Jr.

Cree, Michael J.

Jelinek, H.F.

Leandro, J.J.G.

English

Name not available

Classification of pathology in diabetic eye disease

Research Commons@Waikato

Classification of Pathology in Diabetic Eye DiseaseH. F. Jelinek1, J. Leandro2, R. M. Cesar, Jr2 and M. J. Cree31School of Community HealthCharles Sturt University, Albury, Australia2Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of Sao Paulo, Brazil3Dept. Physics and Electronic EngineeringUniversity of Waikato, Hamilton, New ZealandE-mail: HJelinek@csu.edu.auAbstractProliferative diabetic retinopathy is a complication of di-abetes that can eventually lead to blindness. Early identifi-cation of this complication reduces the risk of blindness byinitiating timely treatment. We report the utility of patternanalysis tools linked with a simple linear discriminant anal-ysis that not only identifies new vessel growth in the retinalfundus but also localises the area of pathology. Ten fluores-cein images were analysed using seven feature descriptorsincluding area, perimeter, circularity, curvature, entropy,wavelet second moment and the correlation dimension. Ourresults indicate that traditional features such as area orperimeter measures of neovascularisation associated withproliferative retinopathy were not sensitive enough to de-tect early proliferative retinopathy (SNR = 0.76, 0.75 re-spectively). The wavelet second moment provided the bestdiscrimination with a SNR of 1.17. Combining second mo-ment, curvature and global correlation dimension provideda 100% discrimination (SNR =∞).1 IntroductionIn proliferative retinopathy new blood vessels are formedin the retina and emerge from the area of the optic disc andspread towards the macula or emerge from peripheral ves-sels [16]. Current prevalence of vision impairment due toretinopathy may be as high as 36% in the diabetic commu-nity. Timely intervention for diabetic retinopathy lessensthe possibility of blindness [14, 18]. Any person with dia-betes should expect to undergo ophthalmic examination atleast annually. Initial screening and follow up assessment ofthe retinal fundus of diabetics is carried out by ophthalmol-ogists, which is both expensive and time consuming whenlarge numbers of patients are examined [2, 19]. In additionbarriers to screening in rural and remote areas exist and in-clude distance required to travel, cost of screening and cul-tural reasons that often lead to indigenous people remain-ing in their communities rather than seeking health advicein larger urban centres. With advances in digital imagingand the development of computerised grading systems, au-tomated reading and assessment of complications associ-ated with the retinal fundus is becoming more sought after,especially in rural and remote areas.Ophthalmologists have an 80 to 95% success rate inidentifying proliferative retinopathy. This success rate de-creases with eye obstruction such as cataract and for identi-fying earlier stages of proliferation without additional med-ical history [22]. However non-specialists perform no bet-ter than chance (50%). The National Health and MedicalResearch Council recommend that generally any screeningprocedure for identifying diabetic retinopathy needs to havea minimum sensitivity of 60% to maximise treatment out-comes and cost-effectiveness [21]. We concentrate on pro-viding an automated procedure to assist in the identificationof neovascularisation that meet NHMRC requirements, es-pecially for rural health professionals. Automated report-ing of neovascularisation involves the segmentation of theblood vessels from background in the digital image and pro-vides an index of the stage of proliferation.1.1 Mathematical assessment of optic fundusblood vesselsResearch into automated processing of retinal fundusimages has mainly concentrated on the identification ofmicroaneurysms associated with preproliferative diabeticretinopathy [9, 15]. Mathematical techniques such as frac-tal analysis have been used in classification tasks as theyare able to quantify complex branching patterns includingblood vessels [8, 17, 12]. Using an automated method thatcan detect neovascularisation with a minimum sensitivity of60% is therefore an useful advancement as it would lessenthe burden on ophthalmologists during initial populationscreening. The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is apowerful and versatile tool that has been applied in manydifferent image processing problems, including shape anal-ysis [11].2 Methods2.1 Image AcquisitionTen fluorescein angiographic retinal images (1024×1024pixel) were obtained using a Topcon camera linked with Im-age 2000 software. These images were exported as TIFFimages for manual tracing of the retinal vessels using theObject-Image imaging software (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/nih-image/) and analysed. Of the ten images five arecontrol images (no disease present) and five are of neovas-cularisation (the diseased state). See Figure 1 for examples.2.2 Morphological Feature ExtractionA number of features were measured on the vesselshapes. These included the area a, perimeter p, circular-ity (c = p2/a) and wavelet fractal inspired measurements.These are described in the following.2.3 Wavelet Transform FeaturesThe wavelet transform is a mathematical tool that hasbeen used in morphological studies of both 1D and 2Ddata. Instead of the 1D contour based approach of Cesar& Costa [6], we utilise the 2D approach [3]. The contin-uous wavelet transform (CWT) Tψ (b, θ, a)(x) of a retinalfundus image f (x), with x = (x, y) is defined as:Tψ (b, θ, a)(x) = C−12ψ1a∫ψ∗(a−1r−θ(x − b))f (x) d2x(1)where Cψ , ψ , b, θ and a denote the normalising constant,analysing wavelet, the displacement vector, the rotation an-gle and the dilation parameter respectively, with the aster-isk denoting complex conjugation, and the partial form ofthe wavelet transform being the position representation [1].The scale and angle parameters (a and θ respectively) werekept fixed for some a priori defined values a = a0 andθ = θ0. For the analysing wavelets used in this research weemployed the first derivative of the Gaussian function [3].Therefore, we define two analysing wavelets, ψ1(x) andψ2(x) as partial derivatives of the Gaussian, vizψ1(x) = ∂g(x)∂xand ψ2(x) = ∂g(x)∂y(2)where g(x) denotes the 2D Gaussian. By using ψ1 and ψ2 aswavelets and the wavelet transform definition in Equation 1,we calculated the gradient wavelet asTψ [f ](b, a) =(Tψ1 [f ](b, a)Tψ2 [f ](b, a))(3)Here, the wavelet transform Tψ for each pair (b, a) is ac-tually a vector whose components are the respective coef-ficients of the wavelet transform using ψ1 and ψ2 as theanalysing wavelets. The wavelet gradient is calculated forevery pixel in the image.From the gradient waveform, Tψ , we obtain three com-plementary shape features to characterise the retinal fundusblood vessel pattern, namely the second wavelet moment,2D curvature and entropy of orientation, calculated only onthe pixels located at the boundary of the vessels.2.4 Second Wavelet MomentIn order to characterise shape complexity we haveutilised the modulus of Tψ , i.e.,Mψ [f ](b, a) =∣∣Tψ∣∣ =√(Tψ1 )2 + (Tψ2 )2 (4)providing a histogram that was calculated from the modulusof the wavelet transformMψ , for a fixed scale value of a [5].Taking the frequency count of the ith bin of the histogramas pi, we define the statistical moment of order q of Mψ asa shape complexity measure, given bymMq =∑iiqpi (5)and adopted the second moment, namely q = 2. Thewavelet calculates the gradient vector at a given pixel bylooking at a neighbourhood around the pixel.2.5 Entropy of the OrientationFrom Tψ and Mψ the respective orientation of each gra-dient vector may be easily calculated as the angle associatedto each vector and a histogram of gradient versus orienta-tion. In order to quantify this dispersion, we have adoptedthe entropy s of the orientation distribution,s = −∑ipi ln pi (6)where the i now indicate histogram binning with respect toorientation θ.2.6 2D CurvatureA measure of how the gradient vectors vary locally is ob-tained from the wavelet transforms that compose the gradi-ent vectors, defined as the 2D curvature. The 2D curvatureis defined as:k = ∇· ∇f‖∇f‖ =fxxf2y − 2fxfyfxy + fyyf2x(f2x + f2y)3/2 (7)where fx, fy, fxx, fyy and fxy denote the first partial deriva-tives of f with respect to x and to y, and the second partialderivatives of f also with respect to x and y. These partialderivatives are estimated using the 2D wavelet transform inthe same spirit described above for the gradients2.7 Correlation DimensionWe utilised the correlation dimension as a complexitymeasure as previously discussed in the literature [13]. Thecorrelation dimension is defined byD2 = limε→0log10 C(ε)log10 ε(8)where C(ε) is the correlation integral calculated with ananalysing disc of diameter ε. This procedure leads to agraph C(ε) versus ε from which a log-log plot-based linefitting is able to estimate the correlation dimension. The lin-ear portion of the log-log slope is determined by two meth-ods. The median correlation dimension is determined bymeasuring the slope for short segments within the log-logplot and taking the median value of all determined slopes.The global correlation dimension is determined by takingthe wavelet transform of the log-log plot using the thirdderivative of the Gaussian as mother wavelet [7] to estab-lish the end points of the linear region, and calculating theslope from the two end points.2.8 Statistical AnalysisBasic statistical information, including mean and stan-dard deviation, was calculated on the individual classes(control and neovascularisation) for each of the measuredfeatures. Assuming a Gaussian distribution for the underly-ing probability distribution for each feature measured overeach class, we arrived at SNR values, which give an indica-tion of the predictive power, for each individual feature.To analyse the data for predictive power of the com-bined features for classification, linear discriminant anal-ysis (LDA) was performed on the matrix representing thedata of the images. Features were normalised so that eachfeature has zero mean and unit standard deviation. LDAwas performed with training and testing with the completedataset, and with cross-validation by testing on each of theindividual images with the classifier trained on the othernine images.A forward feature selection process using LDA as theclassifier was also tried to select the best features. For thiswe varied the constant term of the LDA discriminant func-tion to bias the discriminant towards one class and then theother class, thus obtaining a series of sensitivity and speci-ficity values for detecting the diseased state (neovasculari-sation). A receiver operating curve (ROC) was fitted to thespecificity and sensitivity values according to the model de-scribed by Metz [20], and the area under the curve (AUC),which can be shown to be a monotonically increasing func-tion of the SNR under certain not too restrictive assump-tions [4], was used to test the efficacy of the classifier. Ateach stage the one best feature out of the remaining featureswas added to the subset of features currently selected andthis process was continued until all features were added orno feature improved the classification.3 ResultsTable 1 provides the basic statistical results for each ofthe features analysed on the ten images. On the naı¨ve as-sumption of underlying Gaussian probability distributionsfor each of the classes of each feature the second momentcomes out as the best single feature with a SNR of 1.17.Figure 1. Fluorescein angiographic retinalimages of a control patient (left) and withneovascularisation (right)Figure 1 shows a fluorescein angiographic retinal im-age of a control and a neovascular retinal fundus. Figure 2shows for the same images used in Figure 1 the waveletgradient modulus used in the calculation of the second mo-ment and curvature as 2D output that allows localisation ofpathology.Using LDA as a classifier, trained and tested on the fullfeature data set, perfect classification was achieved. Thisresult should be treated with scepticism as the discriminantfunction involved the cancellation of the area, perimeter andcircularity terms with each other, then multiplying that re-Table 1. Statistical properties of the individual classes for the measured features.Control Neovascularisation DiscriminativeFeature Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Power (SNR)Area 85000 ± 16000 100000 ± 23000 0.76Perimeter 33200 ± 6200 39000 ± 8900 0.75Circularity (13.0 ± 2.4)×106 (15.1 ± 3.5)×106 0.732nd moment 4073 ± 19 4100 ± 25 1.17Entropy 5.57 ± 0.01 5.58 ± 0.02 0.54Curvature 290.2 ± 4.2 295.0 ± 5.2 1.02CD1 median 1.63 ± 0.08 1.62 ± 0.09 0.05CD global 1.56 ± 0.04 1.58 ± 0.06 0.541 CD = correlation dimension.Figure 2. Colour coded image of wavelet gra-dient modulus (left) and curvature (right) ofthe control (top) and neovascular (bottom)sult by five orders of magnitude above the remaining terms.This is the result of training on too few data.Running the forward selection on the feature data setwith LDA as the classifier identified three features, namelycircularity, second moment and global correlation dimen-sion, as all that is needed for perfect classification wherethe classification is both trained and tested on the full dataset.We also examined the utility of a cross-validation on theLDA where the classifier is trained with nine images andtested on the one not included in training. This is repeatedfor leaving each image in turn out of the training. The re-sults of the cross-validation on the manual dataset (using allfeatures) indicated that all neovascularisation images werecorrectly classified but two of the control images were not.Interestingly perfect classification is obtained by excludingthe ‘area’ and ‘perimeter’ features. The removal of thesefeatures, which are highly correlated to each other and tocircularity, has improved the classification.4 DiscussionDiabetes and its associated complications, including pro-liferative diabetic retinopathy, has been identified as a sig-nificant growing global public health problem. Directscreening programmes such as those based on visits to theophthalmologist for retinal fundus assessment currently failto screen between 15 and 62% of patients each year [10].A large proportion of these people develop potentially sightthreatening eye disease, which even at an advanced stagemay not cause any symptoms, yet treatment with a laser canprevent visual loss in up to 98% of people if detected earlyenough [18]. An important step towards reducing the num-bers of individuals seriously affected by diabetic retinopa-thy is to simplify the procedure used to identify the condi-tion and ensure that early eye examinations become routinefor all people with diabetes.Traditional features such as area, perimeter and fractaldimension are not sensitive enough to discriminate betweenthe control retinal fundi and retinal fundi displaying neo-vascularisation. Our feature analysis suggests that eitherthe second wavelet moment alone or in combination withthe curvature and global correlation dimension add to theaccuracy of the classification.This present study is limited in two ways. First, manu-ally obtained vessel segmentations were used for analysis.Ideally the whole process should be automated and stud-ies are currently been undertaken to develop an automatedmeans of segmenting the blood vessels [7]. Second, thenumber of images used in this study are few, hence a ques-tion remains whether the images used truly incorporate theamount of variation present in a large population of retinalimages. For this reason we only used LDA for classifica-tion. It is planned to repeat the study, with automated vesselsegmentation, on a larger corpus of retinal images, and withmore powerful classification algorithms.Acknowledgements: HJ was funded for this project byCharles Sturt University and the Australian Diabetes Asso-ciation. RMC is grateful to FAPESP (99/12765-2) and toCNPq (300722/98-2, 468413/00-6)References[1] J. P. Antoine, P. Carette, R. Murenzi, and B. Piette. Im-age analysis with two-dimensional wavelet transform. Sig.Proc., 31:241–272, 1993.[2] R. Ariysau, P. Lee, K. Linton, L. L. Bree, S. Azen, andA. Siu. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values ofscreening tests for eye conditions in a clinic-based popula-tion. Ophthalmol., 103:1751–1760, 1996.[3] A. Arne´odo, N. Decoster, and S. G. Roux. A wavelet-basedmethod for multifractal image analysis: I. Methodology andtest applications on isotropic and anisotropic random roughsurfaces. Eur. Phys. J. B, 15:567–600, 2000.[4] H. H. Barrett, C. K. Abbey, and E. Clarkson. Objectiveassessment of image quality. III. ROC metrics, ideal ob-servers and likelihod-generating functions. J. Opt. Soc. Am.A, 15:1520–1535, 1998.[5] O. M. Bruno, R. M. Cesar, Jr, L. A. Consularo, andL. da F. Costa. 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Cummings. Screening for diabetic retinopathy. Prac.Diab. Int., 19(1):5, 2002.[11] L. da F. Costa and R. M. Cesar, Jr. Shape Analysis and Clas-sification: Theory and Practice. CRC Press, Boca Raton,FL, 2001.[12] A. Daxer. The fractal geometry of proliferative diabeticretinopathy: Implications for the diagnosis and the processof retinal vasculogenesis. Curr. Eye Res., 12:1103–1109,1993.[13] F. Family, B. R. Masters, and D. E. Platt. Fractal patternformation in human retinal vessels. Physica D, 38:98–103,1989.[14] U. Freudentsin and J. Verne. A national screening pro-gramme for diabetic retinopathy. Br. Med. J., 323:4–5, 2001.[15] J. H. Hipwell, F. Strachan, J. A. Olson, K. C. McHardy,P. F. Sharp, and J. V. Forrester. Automated detection ofmicroaneurysms in digital red-free photographs: a diabeticretinopathy screening tool. Diabetic Medicine, 17:588–594,2000.[16] J. Kanski. Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach.Butterworth-Heinemann, London, 1989.[17] G. Landini. 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A fully automated comparative microaneurysm digital detection system.

A national screening programme for diabetic retinopathy.

A wavelet-based method for multifractal image analysis: I. Methodology and test applications on isotropic and anisotropic random rough surfaces.

Applications of fractal geometry in pathology.

Automated detection of microaneurysms in digital red-free photographs: a diabetic retinopathy screening tool.

Automatic feature selection for biological shape classiﬁcation in SYNERGOS.

Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach.

Diagnosis of diabetic eye disease.

Fractal pattern formation in human retinal vessels.

Fractop: A tool for automated biological image classiﬁcation.

Image analysis with two-dimensional wavelet transform.

National Health and Medical Research Council. Management of Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Practice Guidelines. Australian Government,

Neural cell classiﬁcation by wavelets and multiscale curvature.

Objective assessment of image quality. III. ROC metrics, ideal observers and likelihod-generating functions.

Program for the early detection of diabetic retinaopthy: A two year follow-up.

Screening for diabetic retinopathy.

Segmentation of retinal fundus vasculature in nonmydriatic camera images using wavelets.

Sensitivity, speciﬁcity and predictive values of screening tests for eye conditions in a clinic-based population.

Shape Analysis and Classiﬁcation: Theory and Practice.

The diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy: Ophthalmology versus fundus photography.

The fractal geometry of proliferative diabetic retinopathy: Implications for the diagnosis and the process of retinal vasculogenesis.

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Classification of pathology in diabetic eye disease

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