ReviewSeveral studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While in vivo studies are fundamental for identifying the relation-ship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, in vitro model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an over-view of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for in vitro testing, advan-tages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.The work was supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a
Tecnologia [POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029651, SFRH/BPD/122112/2016,PTDC/MED‐TOX/31162/2017, DL-57/INSA06/2018,SFRH/BD/101060/2014,SFRH/BD/120646/2016,
SIINN/0004/2014,UIDB/04750/2020, LA/P/0064/2020];
Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport
[BEAGAL18/00142]; Spanish Ministry of Science and
Innovation [PID2020-114908GA-I00].info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio
