This paper attempts to provide an insight of asceticism and its development in Egypt through the literal work Athanasius\u27s Life of Antony. It sets out to explain how the peculiar geography and environment in Egypt contributed to the development of asceticism and how the practices of St. Antony reflected the contemporary ideas on soul and body

Chen, Hanyang

English

Works

Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal Volume 4 Issue 2 Article 2 2023 The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s Life Hanyang Chen New York University, hc2576@nyu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj  Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the Classical Literature and Philology Commons Recommended Citation Chen, Hanyang (2023) "The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s Life," Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal: 4 (2), 20-29. https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2 This work is brought to you for free by Swarthmore College Libraries' Works. It has been accepted for inclusion in Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal by an authorized editor of Works. For more information, please contact myworks@swarthmore.edu. The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifeHanyang ChenNew York University201Chen: The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifePublished by Works, 2023Between 356 and 358, Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria in exile, composed the firstbiography of a monk, Life of Antony.1 This remarkable work was so popular and influential that itdrew attention not just to Antony the Great, but also to Egypt, its monks, and its ever-growingmonastic communities. Athanasius wrote in Life that St. Antony’s fame even reached theemperors because Emperor Constantine Augustus and his sons, after having heard of him, wereeager to receive an answer from him as a Father.2 Therefore, in this paper, I will address thefollowing questions: who is St. Antony, what are the most important elements of Antony’sascetic life, and what is the legacy of Athanasius’s Life of Antony?According to Athanasius, St. Antony was a Coptic-speaking peasant. He was raisedChristian and grew up in a village along the Nile River. His parents died when he just reached hisadolescence, leaving him with weighty responsibilities: a younger sister to take care of and afamily farm. One day, when he walked into a church while the Gospel was being read, he heardthe words “If you would be perfect, go, and sell what you have and give it to the poor, and youwill have treasure in heaven” (Matt. 19:21). Antony was moved deeply by these words and sawhimself in the reading as the man whom Jesus was speaking. Thus, he acted immediately: hegave away his lands and goods to the poor, made an arrangement for his sister to be raised invirginity, and then left to live an ascetic life.It is interesting that Athanasius did not depict him as the first monk who pursued theascetic life but as the one who really brought asceticism to the next level and made his asceticlife a real model and standard for the later monks. He pointed out that even though there werenot yet monasteries in Egypt, the ascetic doctrine was being practiced already, and those who2 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 84.1 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, translated by Robert C. Gregg, The Classics ofWestern Spirituality (New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980).212Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal, Vol. 4 [2023], Iss. 2, Art. 2https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2wished to discipline themselves lived in isolation. According to Life, there has already been arecognizable class of Christian ascetics who chose to live on the fringe of the villages and whomAthanasius called “men of Zeal.”3 In other words, the population of Egypt has been in contactwith ascetic teachings for centuries and some of them were taught to look upon the worldthrough ascetic eyes. For instance, during the second century in Alexandria, there was aChristian ascetic sect called Encratite, meaning “self-controlled,” who held the conviction thatthe fallen state of humanity could be most vividly witnessed through sexuality. Thus, in order toreturn to a “natural state,” they forbade marriage for it supported acts of sex and advocatedabstinence from meat.4 However, in response to the Encratites’ heavy charges on sexuality,Clement of Alexandria, a Christian theologian, and philosopher who taught at the CatecheticalSchool of Alexandria, began to develop the theory of body and self around the notion of aChristian sage. He put forward that human beings were unable to avoid some “urges'' such ashunger, fear, and sensations since humans were born with these urges, which Peter Brown called“the muted creaking of the biological self.”5 They were like vapors and, if not checked byvigilant reflection, could mist over the entire mind so that human beings would lose theirrationality. Thus, in order to maintain a lucid and serene vision and state of mind, it wasnecessary to conduct a “meticulous rhythm of life.”6 And only through a disciplined life, humanbeings were able to obtain discernment. However, to “form” a life, from Clement’s perspective,involved no harsh mortification of the flesh. It was rather a process as meticulous and “as long asthe attention that a literary man must give to the right placing of every word.”77 Brown, 130.6 Brown, 129.5 Brown, 129.4 Peter, Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York:Columbia University Press, 1988), 131.3 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 3.223Chen: The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifePublished by Works, 2023Antony was definitely influenced by this notion of cultivation of self, which wastraceable both in Life and in his letters to his disciples. However, what made him special, whoeventually earned the epithet “father of monks,” was not his ascetic lifestyle but where hepracticed asceticism. Earlier Christian thinkers such as Clement did not advocate a completeretreat from society. Rather, he maintained that the Christian sage should discipline himself whileremaining a full member of the society and engaging in “God-given importance of every momentof daily life, and especially of the life in the household.”8 Thus, one of the significantdevelopments in early monasticism that separated it from earlier ascetic traditions is that Antonydecided to make a total break from his surrounding environment. Instead of practicing it at thefringe of the village, he chose to practice it in the desert, which was not a friendly place to live.Brown wrote that the antithesis between the desert and settled land in Egypt was stark enoughthat Antony’s life in the Egyptian desert was a social equivalent of living on the Antarcticcontinent.9 Other than the hostile environments, the desert itself provided many other facets forthe early monks themselves. It should be noted that there was a general tendency in Egypt to fleeto the desert to avoid worldly troubles. For example, early Christians tended to flee to the desertin order to escape the persecution under the pagan Emperor; others tried to avoid the heavy taxesimposed by the emperor. Another important aspect of the desert is that biblically it has beenassociated with the dwelling place of demons. Christ was tempted in the desert and Israelites, thechosen people, was also tested in the desert. Thus, in my opinion, Antony, being fully aware ofthe existence of evil demons in the desert, purposely chose to retreat to the desert in order tostrengthen his mind and cultivate himself.9 Peter, Brown, "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity," Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971): 838 Brown, 128.234Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal, Vol. 4 [2023], Iss. 2, Art. 2https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2It is interesting to notice that asceticism actually comes from the Greek word ασκεσιςwhich was used by Greeks to describe anyone who enters into strict training and disciplinedpractice in order to achieve a certain goal.10 Originally, it was applied to athletes who followedstrict training in order to win the contest. Subsequently, this concept was incorporated into theChristian settings as strict training in order to toughen one’s body and mind for the preparation ofthe final moment of death in order to enter the kingdom of heaven. Therefore, Christian martyrswere often referred to as athletes or fighters of Christ, who played out their devotion in the arenain the midst of a hostile unchristian Roman Empire. For example, Clement of Rome, writing inthe late first century A.D., spoke of martyrs as the “noble athletes” persecuted and engaged in the“contest of death.”11 Moreover, it should not be considered solely a coincidence that both martyrsand gladiators fought and died in the same arena. One of the most famous persecutions was thedeath of St. Perpetua.12 Vibia Perpetua, a member of a high-ranking Roman family, was arrestedalong with four other fellow Christians under the decree of Emperor Septimus Severus. On theday of the persecution, they were led to the amphitheater “joyfully as though they were going toheaven.”13 One of her fellow Christians Saturninus insisted that he wanted to be exposed to alldifferent beasts so that he might receive more glory in heaven. At the same time, when Perpetuafought with the heifer, she asked for a pin to fasten her untidy hair because she insisted that sheshould die with modesty and dignity. In the end, she, fearless and proud, took the “tremblinghand of the young gladiator and guided it to her throat.”14 (56). Thereafter, in the minds of earlyChristians, martyrs were the glorious fighters of Christ and needed to be venerated. Antony wasalso deeply moved by this concept. In Life, Athanasius described how Antony, after hearing of14 Jacob, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas in Late Antiquity, 56.13 Jacob, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas in Late Antiquity, 56.12 Andrew S, Jacob, The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas in Late Antiquity, edited by L. Stephanie Cobb, 1st ed(University of California Press, 2021).11 Daly, "Prayer and Asceticism,” 67810 Gabriel Daly, "Prayer and Asceticism," The Furrow, 22, no. 11 (1971): 676-678245Chen: The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifePublished by Works, 2023the brutal persecutions of Maximin Daia in 313, decided to come out of his cell and go toAlexandria that he “entered the combat or look upon those that do.”15 He attended the trials ofChristians and also accompanied those who were to be martyred to the place of execution. InLife, Athanasius depicted him as bold, yet restrained enough that he would not be accused ofseeking voluntary martyrdom. He then withdrew again to his cell and “was there daily beingmartyred by his conscience, and doing battle in the contests of the faith.”16 Rather than “a singlefinal battle,” Antony was “daily martyred” by his own conscience since he put himself under aconstant threat of being lured both by demons externally and by the human desire for foodinternally.In Life, the demons were usually visible. They could be seen and heard. They could takethe form of “a beguiling seductive temptress” or disguise themselves as “beasts—lions, bears,leopards, snakes, scorpions” and even beat ascetics.17 For instance, in Life, Antony was badlybeaten by demons disguised as a wild beast and was found motionless, speechless, as if dead, byhis friend.18 However, in some cases, some devils were even not visible bodily. In the SevenLetters of St. Antony ascribed to him by St. Jerome in 392 C.E, Antony warned his disciples ofall the “secret contrivances” and “manifold crafts” of the devil’s work.19 For they were notvisible bodily, they took the bodies of human beings and poured all their wickednesses intosouls. Then, he told his disciples that only through “a spirit of discernment” that is bestowed byGod could all the secret devils be revealed. In Life, Athanasius wrote: “the Lord did not forgetthe wrestling of Antony.”20 He appeared and assumed a human voice: “I was here, Antony, but Iwaited to watch your struggle. And now, since you persevered and were not defeated, I will be20 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 10.19 Antony, Letter 6.18 Athanasius, 5.17 Athanasius, 5.16 Athanasius, 47.15 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 46.256Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal, Vol. 4 [2023], Iss. 2, Art. 2https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2your helper forever, and I will make you famous everywhere.”21 In such a way, Antony wasgiven the spirit of discernment and was able to see the fiercest evil spirit.Antony believed that all the burdens that devils had poured both in soul and body shouldbe purged. Thus, according to Athanasius, he maintained a simple diet of bread and salt, onlydrank water, and on many occasions only ate every second day. It was believed in Late Antiquitythat the human body was an “autarkic” system that was capable of running on its own “heat.”22Ideally, the body would only need “enough nourishment to keep that heat alive.” Ascetics tendedto identify the bodies of Adam and Eve as the “natural” state, a state in which the body acted as a“finely tuned engine” capable of idling indefinitely.23 However, the twisted will of fallen menhad crammed the body with all these extra and unnecessary foods, thereby generating “a diresurplus of energy” that manifested itself in “physical appetite, in anger, and in the sexual urge.”24Therefore, as Antony believed and later instructed to his disciples, only through strict asceticdisciplines could the body return to its original, natural, and “uncorrupted” state, free fromanything alien that belonged to the spirit of the enemy. Contemporaries liked to think that theyhad sensed this state in Antony. In Life, when he emerged from his cell after twenty years, hisfriends and villagers were amazed to see that “his body had maintained its former condition andnot emaciated from fasting and combat with demons.”25 Even upon his death, Athanasiusclaimed that Antony's body had not been conquered by old age, but remained free of injury.Upon his death, he was sound in his hands and feet, and “none of his teeth was lost.”26 Thus,through strict regulations of fasting and the intake of food, Antony released himself from theneed for food and remade his body into perfection.26 Athanasius, 96.25 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 14.24 Ibid.23 Ibid.22 Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity, 223.21 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 10.267Chen: The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifePublished by Works, 2023Even though this new form of martyrdom, “daily martyrdom,” created by Antony did notdraw much attention during his lifetime since the worst and bloodiest Christian prosecutionswere yet to come. Under the emperor Diocletian, martyrdom reached its highest point since itwas firmly believed among the Christian community as the noblest way to attest one’s faith andresolution. However, after Constantine came to power and he himself converted to Christianity,the prosecution was halted and during this relatively peaceful period, Antony’s life drew lots ofattention from the Christian community. Under the reign of Constantine, it was observed thatthere was a sudden spike in the conversions among the pagans, many of whom allegedlyconverted to Christianity due to political interest. This sudden expansion of the Christiancommunity aroused anxiety among the more earnest Christians because they were worried thatthe quality of believers was declining. Moreover, they could no longer attest their faiths throughonce the noblest and most revered way-martyrdom. Under such circumstances, what Antonyexpounded, monasticism filled the gap and provided an outlet for the enthusiasm of the moreearnest Christians. In other words, he made himself, later on, the monks, the successor to themartyrs. And this surge of interest in monasticism and the life of Antony was traceable in Life. Inthe preface, Athanasius addressed to those who had requested the biography that each of theirquestions, such as who Antony was before his monastic career, how he began this journey, andhow he disciplined himself, was given ample treatment in the text.27 In other words, Athanasius,himself as a devoted Christian, wanted to spur his readers to action and follow the steps ofAntony. Moreover, he wanted his portrait of Antony to be ideal to be imitated as well as anarchetype to measure oneself against.27 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, Preface.278Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal, Vol. 4 [2023], Iss. 2, Art. 2https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2Toward the end of the Life, Athanasius suggested the story of Antony was a confirmation of the promises in the Bible and this added another layer of credibility to the accounts of Antony’s life: Such is the story of Antony […] For it is the promise of the Saviour who says: If you                             have faith as a grain of mustard seed, you shall say to this mountain: ‘Remove  hence!’and it shall remove; and nothing shall be impossible to you. And again: Amen, amen, I say to you, if you ask the Father anything in my name, He will give it to you… Ask and you shall receive. And it is He who said to His disciples and to all who believe in Him: Heal the sick; cast out demons; freely have you received, freely give.28By telling a story of a fearless hearer who retreated to the desert, acquired the spirit of discernment from God through his incessant prayers and fasting, whose touch could heal the sick and whose magical power could ward off the fiercest evil spirit, Athanasius provided the monks with a detailed and sufficient picture of ascetic practices. As is known, Athanasius’s Life turned out to be a huge success since it inspired countless imitators and monasticism really flourished over the next 1000 years. The elements of Athanasius’s narratives, such as the dramatic conversion, the battle with demons, unending battle with fasting, also became recurring themes and the standards in the later literature of monasticism and medieval hagiography. In the end, as Athanasius famously said, “the desert was made a city by monks, who left their own people and registered themselves for citizenship in the heavens.”2929 Athanasius, 14.28 Athanasius, The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, 89.289Chen: The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s LifePublished by Works, 2023Works CitedAntony. Letters of Saint Antony the Great. Translated by Derwas J. Chitty. Faircares: Sisters ofthe Love of God, 1975.Athanasius. The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus. Translated by Robert C. Gregg The Classics of Western Spirituality. New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980.Brown, Peter. "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity." Journal of RomanStudies 61 (1971): 80-101.The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity. New York:Columbia University Press, 1988.Daly, Gabriel. "Prayer and Asceticism." The Furrow, 22, no. 11 (1971): 671-85.Jacobs, Andrew S. The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas in Late Antiquity. Edited by L.Stephanie Cobb. 1st ed. University of California Press, 2021.2910Swarthmore Undergraduate History Journal, Vol. 4 [2023], Iss. 2, Art. 2https://works.swarthmore.edu/suhj/vol4/iss2/2

The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s Life

https://works.swarthmore.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1191&context=suhj

The Desert A City: A Study of Antony the Great’s Life

Abstract

Similar works

Full text

Available Versions

Works