The three biggest challenges currently faced in machine learning, in our estimation, are the staggering quantity of data we wish to analyze, the incredibly small proportion of these data that are labeled, and the apparent lack of interest in creating algorithms that continually learn during inference. An unsupervised streaming approach addresses all three of these challenges, storing only a finite amount of information to model an unbounded dataset and adapting to new structures as they arise. Specifically, we are motivated by automated target recognition (ATR) in synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) imagery, the problem of finding explosive hazards on the sea oor. It has been shown that the performance of ATR can be improved by, instead of using a single classifier for the entire ATR task, creating several specialized classifers and fusing their predictions [44]. The prevailing opinion seems be that one should have different classifiers for varying complexity of sea oor [74], but we hypothesize that fusing classifiers based on sea bottom type will yield higher accuracy and better lend itself to making explainable classification decisions. The first step of building such a system is developing a robust framework for online texture classification, the topic of this research. xi In this work, we improve upon StreamSoNG [85], an existing algorithm for streaming data analysis (SDA) that models each structure in the data with a neural gas [69] and detects new structures by clustering an outlier list with the possibilistic 1-means [62] (P1M) algorithm. We call the modified algorithm StreamSoNGv2, denoting that it is the second version, or verse, if you will, of StreamSoNG. Notable improvements include detection of arbitrarily-shaped clusters by using DBSCAN [37] instead of P1M, using growing neural gas [43] to model each structure with an adaptive number of prototypes, and an automated approach to estimate the n parameters. Furthermore, we propose a novel algorithm called single-pass possibilistic clustering (SPC) for solving the same task. SPC maintains a fixed number of structures to model the data stream. These structures can be updated and merged based only on their "footprints", that is, summary statistics that contain all of the information from the stream needed by the algorithm without directly maintaining the entire stream. SPC is built on a damped window framework, allowing the user to balance the weight between old and new points in the stream with a decay factor parameter. We evaluate the two algorithms under consideration against four state of the art SDA algorithms from the literature on several synthetic datasets and two texture datasets: one real (KTH-TIPS2b [68]) and xii one simulated. The simulated dataset, a significant research effort in itself, is of our own construction in Unreal Engine and contains on the order of 6,000 images at 720 x 720 resolution from six different texture types. Our hope is that the methodology developed here will be effective texture classifiers for use not only in underwater scene understanding, but also in improving performance of ATR algorithms by providing a context in which the potential target is embedded.Includes bibliographical references
