De Micco, Francesco

Scendoni, Roberto

IntechOpen

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On a theoretical level, it is a discipline that contributes to the formation of new laws and the interpretation of existing ones by providing the best scientific evidence. This allows legal norms to be adapted to advances in biological sciences and the social needs of mankind.From a strictly applicative point of view, forensic medicine using scientific notions has an irreplaceable supporting function for justice.The perimeter of disciplines pertaining to forensic sciences is progressively expanding. The traditional fields of forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, foren-sic toxicology, forensic genetics, medical professional responsibility, and bioethics may be complemented and modified by developments in digitalization in healthcare, such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and robotics.The future of forensic science could change radically.In forensic anthropology, dental age estimation is currently the most widely used method because it is inexpensive and easily applied, and can be applied to both the dead and the living. Age estimation in undocumented individuals undergoing autopsy or in victims of mass disasters are the most common scenarios in which dental age estimation is applied to the dead; in the case of the living, dental age estimation is often used for unaccompanied minors. There are several methods that are based on dental characteristics and development using diagnostic imaging, and their combina-tion allows for increased accuracy of estimation. A multidisciplinary and holistic approach is recommended worldwide, although many health professionals consider medical age assessment, especially when performed through radiology, to be highly invasive and ethically questionable because it is conducted without medical purpose or therapeutic benefit [1–3]. DNA analytical techniques are constantly evolving. In order to offer increasingly reliable tools to investigators, particular attention is being paid to the identification of phenotypic characteristics of the alleged offender [4]. Many authors showed the prospects of the DNA phenotyping technique. With DNA phenotyping, it is possible to predict the phenotypic traits of the alleged offender but also to infer biogeographic ancestry and age estimation using epigenetic markers. Forensic and Legal Medicine - State of the Art, Practical Applications and New Perspectives2Future studies will presumably lead to increasingly accurate descriptions of a person’s appearance from DNA, offering greater value for judicial investigations (homicide, violence, missing persons, etc.).Emerging/convergent technologies constitute a new field of techno-science characterized by the synergetic integration of several previously separate scientific fields, envisaged as a broad innovation that will lead to a radical modification of mankind and humanity itself. The trends in techno-scientific progress are delineat-ing a new chapter of applied ethics in comparison with the “traditional” topics of biomedical ethics, in the face of which there are composite critical issues emerging, such as the speed of technological evolution, the complexity of technologies, the breadth of applications, the indeterminacy of the traditional boundaries between the medical and nonmedical spheres, the uncertainty related to the lack of data and evidence, and the pervasiveness of technology. The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly increased the use of digital health tools to support communication, information, surveillance, monitoring, and healthcare strategies [5–8]. Some authors demon-strated the development of a new identification models through the integration of artificial intelligence systems and imaging, proceeding to automated image analysis for decision-making-mindedness, and distinguishing in this way positive patients from a negative one [9].On the other hand, some authors showed the negative implications and threats that can arise from the use of new technologies. Individual behaviors, personality traits, online activities, and attitudes toward technology have an impact on vulner-ability. Mental illness can increase vulnerability to cybercrime. In fact, individuals with mental disorders may not be fully aware of the dangers of cybercrime or mea-sures to reduce the risk of certain online behaviors. Cybercrime, so, can promote the transition from virtual sexual aggression to physical sexual aggression. It is, therefore, mandated to develop means to protect people from cyber sexual crimes [10].In the field of forensic sciences, forensic pathology is an important branch of criminal investigation and has a lot of room for growth with artificial intelligence systems. The traditional way of performing an autopsy and rendering an opinion has many limitations, which can be overcome with machine learning models. Various forensic procedures such as poison analysis, collection of cadaveric biological speci-mens, detection of pathological changes in the corpse, calculation of post-mortem interval, and detection of a weapon used as a means to injure or kill are the fields where artificial intelligence will play a key role in formulating various judgments of forensic interest [11]. That of forensic autopsies is a minefield, as quality is often questioned [12]; therefore, increasingly innovative and sophisticated approaches will be needed in the near future.2. Reflection on forensic sciencesGiven the nature of the discipline, this book through a multidisciplinary approach aims to offer the reader some reflections on forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, forensic genetics, and the use, positive or negative, of new technologies. Knowing how technological advances can affect this scientific discipline, its criticalities and potential, will enable those who practice it to drive change while always pursuing the protection of the human being.It is not possible at the moment to predict the technological and scientific discov-eries that will shape and advance forensic science in the near future, nor can it be Introductory Chapter: Forensic and Legal Medicine – State of the Art, Practical Applications…DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1101383Author detailsRoberto Scendoni1* and Francesco De Micco21 Department of Law, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy2 Bioethics and Humanities Research Unit, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Rome, Italy*Address all correspondence to: scendoni@unimc.itpredicted what the footprint will be left by innovative approaches through artificial intelligence systems, but we are convinced that there will be a forensic science based on evidence close to certainty involving the use of highly reliable tools. Investigating the dynamic nature of scientific reconstructions and interpreting the complexity of forensic scientific evidence will be a stimulating challenge.© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Forensic and Legal Medicine - State of the Art, Practical Applications and New Perspectives4References[1] Prince DA, Ubelaker DH. Application of Lamendin’s adult dental aging technique to a diverse skeletal sample. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2002;47(1):107-116[2] Cameriere R, Scendoni R, Ferrante L, Mirtella D, Oncini L, Cingolani M. An effective model for estimating age in unaccompanied minors under the Italian legal system. Healthcare (Basel). 2023;11(2):224. DOI: 10.3390/ healthcare11020224. PMID: 36673592; PMCID: PMC9859195[3] De Micco F, Angelakopoulos N, Martino F, Corbi G, Cameriere C, Campobasso CP. Skeletal age estimation in a contemporary South African population using two radiological methods (Bo/Ca and TW2). Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2022;54(6): 767-784[4] McCord BR, Gauthier Q , Cho S, Roig MN, Gibson-Daw GC, Young B, et al. Forensic DNA analysis. Analytical Chemistry. 2019;91(1):673-688[5] Cingolani M, Scendoni R, Fedeli P, Cembrani F. Artificial intelligence and digital medicine for integrated home care services in Italy: Opportunities and limits. Frontiers in Public Health. 2023;10:1095001. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1095001[6] De Micco F, Fineschi V, Banfi G, Frati P, Oliva A, Travaini GV, et al. From COVID-19 pandemic to patient safety: A new “Spring” for Telemedicine or a Boomerang effect? Frontiers in Medicine (Lausanne). 2022;15(9):901788. DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.901788[7] Fedeli P, Scendoni R, Cingolani M, Corrales Compagnucci M, Cirocchi R, Cannovo N. Informed consent and protection of personal data in genetic research on COVID-19. Healthcare (Basel). 2022;10(2):349. DOI: 10.3390/ healthcare10020349[8] Travaini GV, Pacchioni F, Bellumore S, Bosia M, De Micco F. Machine learning and criminal justice: A systematic review of advanced methodology for recidivism risk prediction. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(17):10594. DOI: 10.3390/ ijerph191710594[9] Pennisi M, Kavasidis I, Spampinato C, et al. An explainable AI system for automated COVID-19 assessment and lesion categorization from CT-scans. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine. 2021;118:102114[10] Monteith S, Bauer M, Alda M, Geddes J, Whybrow PC, Glenn T. Increasing cybercrime since the pandemic: Concerns for psychiatry. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2021;23(4):18[11] Wankhade TD, Ingale SW, Mohite PM, Bankar NJ. Artificial intelligence in forensic medicine and toxicology: The future of forensic medicine. Cureus. 2022;14(8):e28376[12] Scendoni R, Fedeli P, Cannovo N, Cingolani M. The “magnificent seven errors” in forensic autopsy practice: The Italian context. Academic Forensic Pathology. 2021;11(4):208-214

Introductory Chapter: Forensic and Legal Medicine – State of the Art, Practical Applications, and New Perspectives

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