Fiorentino, Girolamo

Madella, Marco

Minervini, Ignazio

English

Università del Salento: ESE - Salento University Publishing

New Methodological Approaches to the Study of Human-environment Interactions at Shahr-i SokhtaGirolamo Fiorentino1, Marco Madella2-3 and Ignazio Minervini11 Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology. Department of Cultural Heritage. University of the Salento.2 CaSEs Research Group, Department of Humanities, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain.3 ICREA, Barcelona, Spain.girolamo.fiorentino@unisalento.it; marco.madella@upf.edu; ignaziomine@gmail.comAbstractThis paper presents the results of the new archaeobotanical analysis carried out at the site of Shahr-i Sokhta, in the light of the new data emerging from the 2019 excavations of ‘Building 33’ and the new palaeoenvironmental research strategies inside the site (Trench 36) and in the immediate surroundings. The recent research campaign also adopted a multiproxy palaeoenvironmental approach to the study of micro- and macro- plant remains, digging sampling pits in the dry bed of a depression inside the site (the intermediate area) and another pit immediately outside the settlement in the broad dry bed of the river Hirmand New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ...EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3670(the off-site area). The site represents a key place for understanding the different aspects of mankind’s management of natural resources during the Bronze Age and the different modes of human-environment interaction.1. IntroductionThis paper comes a few years after the first publication on the resumption of the archaeobotanical and palaeoenvironmental investigations in the site of Shahr-i Sokhta, in the light of the new data emerging from the 2019 excavations of ૽%XLOGLQJૅDQGWKHQHZSDODHRHQYLURQPHQWDOUHVHDUFKVWUDWHJLHVLQVLGHWKHVLWHand in the immediate surroundings.The on-site archaeobotanical research adopted a strategy of targeted spatial archaeobotanical sampling in order to investigate the distribution of micro- and macro- plant remains with reference to a functional reading of the spaces of the YDULRXVORFLRI૽%XLOGLQJૅGXULQJWZRRIWKHVWUXFWXUH¶VSKDVHVRIRFFXSDWLRQNew on-site sampling strategies were also applied to the exposed part of a trench dug during previous excavations (Trench 36), in order to stratigraphically investigate other phases of occupation of the site based on systematic sampling of the deposits of discarded material in a midden.The recent research campaign also adopted a multiproxy palaeoenvironmental approach to the study of micro- and macro- plant remains, digging sampling pits in the dry bed of a depression inside the site (the intermediate area) and another pit immediately outside the settlement in the broad dry bed of the River Helmand (the off-site area).2. Sampling strategiesThe archaeobotanical investigations entailed the adoption of various approaches to sampling and analysis, based on the identification of three different types of area to be investigated (Fig. 1): - on-site areas lying within the settlement characterised by human activities (with specific intervention during the excavation of Building 33 and investigations in Trench 36); New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 671Fig. 1: view of the site of Shahr-i Shokta with the areas subject to archaeobotanical and palaeoenvironmental investigation.- off-site areas more directly influenced by palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic regional dynamics, especially the bed of the River Helmand (with stratigraphic trenches outside the settlement); - an intermediate area, i.e. an area that was plausibly influenced by environmental variations but was also directly affected by the settlement’s human DFWLYLWLHVZLWKDWUHQFKLQVLGHWKHGHSUHVVLRQQH[WWR૽%XLOGLQJૅZKLFKPD\have functioned as a reserve of water for the settlement). On-site investigations: Building 33'XULQJWKHH[FDYDWLRQRI૽%XLOGLQJૅLQWKHDQGFDPSDLJQVDseries of standard-volume sediment samples (5 litres) were taken. Concentrations of combusted remains, identified by visual inspection, were also collected. The sampling approach sought to take account of the stratigraphy of the phases of occupation and the spatial distribution of the remains.EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3672The sediment gathered was dry-sieved through 4 mm, 1 mm and 0.5 meshes, in accordance with the procedures established during the 2017 campaign (Fiorentino - Minervini 2019). On the basis of the functional division of the various sectors RI૽%XLOGLQJૅSURSRVHGE\($VFDORQHWKHUHFRYHUHGUHPDLQVwere then grouped into three sectors for the subsequent analyses:- the kitchens in the northern part of the building (L.34; L. 36; L. 37)- the staterooms in the central part (L.19; L.21)- the residential sector (upper levels of L.19; L.6)The spatial sediment sampling was intensified in the course of the 2019 FDPSDLJQHVSHFLDOO\LQORFLDQGDOORXWVLGH૽%XLOGLQJૅ$QDUHD4 m by 3 m was marked out and subdivided into squares of 60 cm by 60 cm. The objective was to better determine the function of the spaces and recover those types of plant remains with the greatest information potential (phytoliths and starch grains) (Fig. 2).A further distinction was made between samples pertaining to the structure’s two different phases of occupation, separating material from the building’s older Fig. 2: systematic spatial sampling in the area of Building 33 for the analysis of micro-remains.New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 673phase (period III – phase 5b/4: L.15; L.16) from that of its more recent phase (period III – phase 4-3). On-site investigations: Trench 36Archaeological excavations in the site of Shahr-i Sokhta are traditionally characterised by large deep trenches, enabling vertical stratigraphic verification, in various parts of the site, which have made it possible to investigate and determine the periods and phases of occupation. These are significant stratigraphic contexts that can also provide key information on diachronic variations in the use of plants and the dynamics of formation of midden deposits. Middens are characterised by homogeneous patterns of accumulation of plant remains in terms of the dynamics of use-reuse-discard, and they contain high concentrations of organic residues of various kinds. Studying them can thus provide a long-term view compared to the contextual synchronic analysis associated with the systematic spatial excavation of other areas.The 2019 excavation campaign saw the start of the investigations in one of these trenches, Trench 36, located in the eastern part of Shahr-i Sokhta, immediately to the east of the Eastern Residential Area. The trench was reopened in order to conduct microstratigraphic verification of the deposit’s accumulation patterns. This entailed systematic vertical samplings (Fig. 3) aimed at the recovery of plant micro-remains (phytoliths) and macro-remains (charcoals, seeds and fruits). Further samplings of archaeobotanical remains were conducted for the purposes of C14 dating and analysis of stable isotopes (carbon and nitrogen). The sediment gathered for the analyses of plant macro-remains was wet sieved through 4 mm, 1 mm and 0.5 mm meshes. The plant material selected was partially analysed and determined and the results will be presented in another publication, together with those of the micro-remains.Investigations in off-site and intermediate areasRegarding the sampling strategies in the intermediate area, the investigation of the exploratory pit, about 200 cm deep, dug during the 2018 excavation campaign (Fig. 4), was extended. EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3674Fig. 4: sampling in the pit of the depression inside the site.Fig. 3: systematic vertical sampling in Trench 36.New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 675Fig. 5: distribution of the sampling inside the depression and on the walls of one of its tributaries.In order to obtain as detailed a picture as possible of the dynamics of the depression, sampling was also performed along the walls of one of the dry tributaries that flowed into the depression both in the past and today (Fig. 5). The analyses of pre-washed bulk samples are still in progress. The objective, as previously mentioned, is to identify any correlation between water levels in this depression lying within the site and the dynamics of occupation of the settlement, HVSHFLDOO\WKHDGMDFHQW૽%XLOGLQJૅORFDWHGQH[WWRWKHGHSUHVVLRQLWVHOIThe off-site investigations entailed manually excavating a pit outside the site to a depth of 150 cm, in an area of relatively low dynamism along the course of the River Helmand (Fig. 6). The analyses serve to reconstruct the dynamics of the river and its palaeohydrology, in parallel with the investigations already under way in the area (Hamzeh et al. 2016) but with greater chronological resolution, helping to determine any correlation with the settlement’s various phases of life. 3. Materials and methodsThe macroscopic plant component was directly selected and determined in the archaeobotanical laboratory in the MAIPS’s storage facility in Shahr-i Sokhta with the aid of a stereomicroscope and a reflected-light metallographic microscope.EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3676Fig. 6: sampling in the off-site pit.New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 677The anthracological remains (fragments of combusted woody tissue) were identified by reading the three fundamental cross-sections of the anatomy of wood (transversal, tangential, radial), observed at 100 to 400x magnification. Taxonomic determination was performed with reference to samples of current vegetation gathered in the area and dichotomous keys found in atlases of wood anatomy (Neumann et al. 2001; Schweingruber et al. 2011).Analysis of the carpological component (seeds, fruits and other parts of the plant) entailed morphological and biometric recognition of the remains observed in various views, comparison with the collection of current samples gathered in the region and reference to specific carpological atlases, especially regarding the Poaceae family (Katz et al. 1965; Jacomet, 2006; Nesbit, 2006).The sediment samples used for the analysis of the microscopic plant component were first tested to verify the presence of phytoliths and then prepared for transport and subsequent processing in the laboratory of the CaSEs Research Group of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona, where the analyses are currently in progress.4. ResultsHere we present the results of the anthracological and carpological analyses performed on plant macro-remains recovered during the 2017 and 2018 excavation FDPSDLJQVLQ૽%XLOGLQJૅAnthracological analysesIn total, 1250 charcoal fragments were analysed (Tab. 1). Of these, 749 were classed as pertaining to phase 4-3 and 501 to phase 5b-4. On the whole, the taxonomic variability is very low (only four taxa are attested: Capparis sp., Chenopodiaceae, Populus/Salix, Tamarix sp.), as is typical for such contexts in arid areas in which the arboreal and shrub vegetation is characterised by low variability. There are no variations between the two phases other than differences in the percentages accounted for by each taxon (Graphs 1-2). Specifically, in the more EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3678Taxon III (Phase 4-3) III (Phase 5b/4)Capparis sp 73 131Chenopodiaceae 15 4Populus/Salix 13 1Tamarix sp. 480 306Indeterminate 168 59Total 749 501Tab. 1: numbers of recovered charcoals by taxon and by phase.Graph 1: taxonomic composition phase 5b-4.Graph 2: Taxonomic composition phase 4-3.New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 679Tab. 2: Numbers of recovered charcoals by locus and functional area.taxaStaterooms sector Residential sector Kitchens sectorlocus 19locus 21locus 4locus 6locus 15locus 16locus 33locus 34locus 36locus 37Capparis sp. 29 22 17 1 102 29 2 2Chenopodiaceae 3   1 4 11  Populus/Salix 7 1 1 1  4  Tamarix sp. 145 61 116 10 246 60 56 15 5 83Indeterminate 68 16 34 3 51 8 31 2 15Tot 252 100 168 15 400 101 104 17 5 100recent phase 4-3, there seem to be more plants associated with an environment with greater humidity and increased salinity of the nearby depression (a greater presence of Tamarix).The spatial analysis of the samples reveals taxonomic variability, although the most frequent taxon is always Tamarix sp. (Tab. 2). The taxonomic differences between the loci sampled in the three functional areas previously described indicate lower variability in the area of the kitchens, probably related to the lower number of fragments recovered and analysed: 520 in the staterooms, 516 in the residential area, 122 in the area of the kitchens (Graph 3). The greatest variability is seen in the staterooms, where there are also open spaces, such as L.19, in which the large number of fragments is probably due to the emptying of numerous combustion structures over time.Carpological analysesIn total, 231 carpological remains belonging to various categories of seed/fruit and to parts of ears of cereals were analysed (Tab. 3). Most of the remains are from Locus 19, excavated in 2017, and Locus 185, excavated and systematically sampled in 2019, while the other loci yielded very few remains. The taxonomic richness is high, with 21 taxa at varying levels of resolution, from the family (Cyperaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Leguminosae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae) to the EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3680genus (Avena, Bromus, Carex, Cucumis, Galium, Hordeum, Ranunculus, Rubus, Salsola, Triticum, Viburnum) and – for some remains – the species (Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum/durum, Triticum monococcum, Vitis vinifera) (Graph 4).On the whole, most of the remains are of herbaceous plants, both wild vegetation and weeds typical of fields, especially the Poaceae identified. The plants most directly linked to diet and to cultivation are cereals, which include Hordeum vulgare and wheats both naked (Triticum aestivum/durum) and hulled (Triticum monococcum). The presence of remains of ears of wheat in the assemblage of Locus 19 also marks the area as a space used for processing cereals, probably in the open air. Legumes are not present in large quantities, but there are seeds of Vitis vinifera and vegetable crops such as Cucumis. The carpological data seem to indicate a fairly sophisticated management of the plant resources, probably characterised by the cultivation of cereals in open spaces outside the site, while inside the settlement itself, where there was greater availability of water, there were probably allotments and gardens for the cultivation of vegetables and vines. 5. Discussion7KHDUFKDHRERWDQLFDODQDO\VHVSHUIRUPHGWRGDWHKDYHIRFXVHGRQ૽%XLOGLQJૅin which the extensive stratigraphic excavations have enabled more accurate sampling strategies and the systematic recovery of plant macro-remains. Despite being generally characterised by low taxonomic variability, the two phases considered were found to differ in terms of the anthracological remains, probably the result of micro-variations in the palaeohydrology of the nearby depression in the site and in the wider Hirmand river basin. The intensity of these variations is still difficult to measure, although the results of the analyses of the samples taken in the intermediate and off-site areas will no doubt shed some light on this. The carpological data seem to indicate for phase 4-3 a cultivated area next to the site, which clearly benefited from a water supply sufficient for growing cereals, including the more demanding species such as the naked wheats. A New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 681Graph 3: Taxonomic composition by functional area.Graph 4: taxonomic distribution of carpological remains by locus.EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3682Tab. 3: numbers of carpological remains by taxon and by locus. Cereals Poaceae Carexsp Chenopodiaceae Cucumissp Galiumsp Leguminosae Pistaciasp Polygonaceae Ranunculussp Vitis vinifera Indeterminate locus 15             locus 19             locus 33             locus 6             New Methodological Approaches to the Study of ... 683further indicator of good management of water resources on the site, or indeed of higher rainfall, is the cultivation of vines and vegetable crops including cucurbits.The continuation of the archaeobotanical investigations of micro- and macro-remains on the site and the processing of the data from the samplings conducted to date outside it will make it possible to correlate more accurately the internal dynamics of the site during its various phases with variations in the palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the Hirmand river basin as a whole. Indeed, given its geographical location, the area of the site of Shahr-i Sokhta can provide important information for the reconstruction of the complex palaeoclimatic dynamics that affected this part of Sistan in the course of the Bronze Age, as part of the large climate systems characterising the Indian subcontinent and the Mediterranean basin.EXCAVATIONS AND RESEARCHES AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 3684BibliographyAscalone, E., 2019. Rapporto preliminare sugli scavi 2017 in area 33 a Shar-i Sokthta. In E. Ascalone and S.M.S. Sajjadi (eds.), Scavi e ricerche a Shahr-i Sokhta (= ERSS 1), Pishin Pajouh, Tehran, 19-74.Fiorentino, G., and I. Minervini, 2019. Le attività del Laboratorio di Archeobotanica e Paleoecologia a Shahr-i Sokhta. In E. Ascalone and S.M.S. Sajjadi (eds.), Scavi e ricerche a Shahr-i Sokhta (= ERSS 1), Pishin Pajouh, Tehran, 261-270.Hamzeh, M.A., Mahmudy-Gharaie M.H., Alizadeh-Lahijani, H., Moussavi-Harami, R., Djamali, M. and A. Naderi-Beni, 2016. Paleolimnology of Lake Hamoun (E Iran): Implication for Past Climate Changes and Possible Impacts on Human Settlements. Palaios 31/12 (December), 616–629. doi:10.2110/palo.2016.055.Jacomet, S., 2006. Identification of cereal remains from archaeological sites (2nd edition), Archaeobotany Lab IPAS, Basel University, Basel.Katz, N.J., Katz S.V., and M.G. Kipiani, 1965. Atlas and keys of fruits and seeds occurring in the Quaternary deposits of the USSR, Moscow.Nesbitt, M., 2006. Identification Guide for Near Eastern Grass Seeds, Institute of Archaeology, UCL, London.Neumann, K., Schoch, W., Détienne, P. and F.H. Schweingruber, 2001. Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel: an anatomical atlas = Bois du Sahara et du Sahel = Hölzer der Sahara und des Sahel, Haupt, Bern.Schweingruber, F.H., Börner, A. and E.-D.Schulze, 2011. Atlas of Stem Anatomy in Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees: with Over 2000 Color Illustrations, Springer, Berlin - New York.

New Methodological Approaches to the Study of Human-environment Interactions at Shahr-i Sokhta

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New Methodological Approaches to the Study of Human-environment Interactions at Shahr-i Sokhta

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