Bodmer, Thomas

Iseli, Patricia

Mühlemann, Kathrin

Stebler, Ariane

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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 6 8 l family members or visitors. No correlation was found between isolates recovered from routine surveillance cultures done for patients and isolates found to be colonizing or contaminating patients' family members or visitors. The duration of family visits in our ICU (3 or more hours per day) is no shorter than the visiting times reported in other countries.5'7'8 In addition, 18 of 33 patients had a length of stay of 15 days or more. Thus, limited exposure time is not a good explanation for the lack of correlation between isolates recov-ered from patients and isolates recovered from their respective family members and visitors. Hand washing is recommended as the most effective means to prevent transmission by direct contact, because it reduces the concentration of contaminants on the skin.9 We did detect contamination with A. baumanii on the hands of visitors prior to hand washing at departure, an organism that was also iso-lated from the patients that they visited. After that, these visi-tors were monitored for the presence of A. baumanii prior to entry to the ICU and after hand washing; A. baumanii was not isolated again from these individuals. We believe the lack of correlation between the isolates recovered from patients and those recovered from family members may relate to our hand washing policies. Fumagalli et al.4 have shown that an unrestricted visitation policy, despite imposing a greater microbial burden and greater environmental contamination, does not increase the risk of infectious complications'in cardiac ICU patients. Po-tential pathogens isolated from patients do not appear to be the same as those carried by their family members and visitors, nor does exposure to these pathogens increase the risk of infection in the ICU if appropriate hand hygiene is enforced. A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S Potential conflicts of interest. All authors report no conflicts of interest rele-vant to this article. Paolo Malacarne, MD; Silvia Pini, MD; Nunzio De Feo, RN From the Unita Operativa, Anestesia e Rianimazione Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria Pisana, Pisa, Italy (all authors). Address reprint requests to Paolo Malacarne, UO Anestesia e Rianimazione Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria Pisana, Via Roma 2, Pisa, Italy (pmalacarne@hotmail.com). Infect Control Hasp Epidemiol 2008; 29:679-681 © 2008 by The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. All rights reserved. 0899-823X72008/2907-0019$ 15.00. DOI: 10.1086/588703 R E F E R E N C E S 1. Berwick DM, Kotagal M. Restricted visiting hours in ICUs: time to change. JAMA 2004;292:736-737. 2. Giannini A. Open intensive care units: the case in favour. Minerva Anesth 2007;73:299-305. 3. Burchardi H. Let's open the door. Intensive Care Med 2002;28:1371-1372. 4. Fumagalli S, Boncinelli L, Lo Nostro A, et al. Reduced cardiocircula-tory complications with unrestrictive visiting policy in an intensive care unit: results from a pilot, randomized trial. Circulation 2006; 113:946-952. 5. Quinio P, Savry C, Deghelt A, Guilloux M, Catineau I, De Tinteniac A. A multicenter survey of visiting policies in French intensive care units. Inten-sive Care Med 2002;28:1389-1394. 6. Malacarne P, Langer M, Nascimben E, et al. Building a continuous multi-center infection surveillance system in the intensive care unit: findings from the initial data set of 9493 patients from 71 Italian intensive care units. Crit Care Med 2008;36:1105-1113. 7. Berti D, Ferdinande P, Moons P. Beliefs and attitudes of intensive care nurses toward visits and open visiting policy. Intensive Care Med 2007;33: 1060-1065. 8. Lee M, Friedenberg A, Mukpo D, Conray Kayla, Palmisciano A, Levy M. Visiting hours policies in New England intensive care units: strategies for improvement. Crit Care Med 2007;35:497-501. 9. Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002;51(RR-16):l-45. Whole-Blood Interferon-Gamma Release Assay for Baseline Tuberculosis Screening of Healthcare Workers at a Swiss University Hospital To the Editor—In countries with low tuberculosis incidence rates, such as Switzerland,1 targeted testing for latent tubercu-losis infection (LTBI) among risk groups such as healthcare workers (HCWs) is an important measure for preventing tu-berculosis disease.24 We studied the prevalence of LTBI and its risk factors among hospital employees at the University Hos-pital of Berne, Switzerland, in a retrospective cohort study us-ing a whole-blood interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA).5 From June 1, 2005, through May 31, 2006, we screened 777 employees for tuberculosis infection with an IGRA on com-mencement of employment. The following data were collected for each HCW: age, sex, bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vacci-nation status (documented or reported), country of origin, place of work, and profession. The mean age of subjects was 32 years (75% were aged 20-40 years). The majority (70.8%) of employees were female (Table). The overall BCG vaccination rate was 87.4% (90.4% among employees of Swiss origin, of whom 12.1% had multiple BCG vaccinations). The IGRA used for screening (QuantiFeron-TB Gold In-Tube assay; Cellestis) was performed according to the manufacturer's instructions.6 Data were evaluated by univariate analysis as well as multiple logistic regression analysis. GraphPad Prism 4, version 4.01 (GraphPad Software), and StatView, version 5.0 (SAS Insti-tute), were used for all data evaluations. A positive IGRA result was found for 59 (7.6%) of the 777 participants (Table). Tuberculosis disease was ruled out in each case by a careful consideration of the medical history, the symptoms, and the chest X-ray findings. The overall rate of LTBI in our study population was 7.6%, which concurs with https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1086/588587Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 16:00:09, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at682 INFECTION CONTROL AND HOSPITAL EPIDEMIOLOGY JULY 2008 , VOL. 29, NO. 7 T A B L E . Results of Univariate Analysis of Risk Factors for Latent Tuberculosis (TB) Infection Among 777 Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Screened Factor Age, years, mean ± SD Sex Female Male Country of origin, by incidence of TBa Group A (low) Group B (high) Degree of risk of exposure to TB By place of work Low Moderate High By profession Low Moderate High Receipt of BCG vaccination No Yes Unknown No. (%) of all HCWs 550 (70.8) 227 (29.2) 682 (87.8) 95 (12.2) 217 (27.9) 398 (51.2) 162 (20.8) 221 (28.4) 198 (25.5) 358(46.1) 63 (8.1) 428 (55.1) 286 (36.8) No. (%) of HCWs with risk factor, by Positive (n = 59) 33.7 ± 11.1 44 (8.0) 15 (6.6) 41 (6.0) 18(18.9) 11 (5.0) 30 (7.5) 18(11.1) 15 (6.8) 14 (7.0) 30 (8.4) 6 (9.5) 28 (6.5) 25 (8.7) IGRA result Negative (n = 718) 31.6 ± 9.6 506 (92.0) 212 (93.4) 641 (94.0) 77(81.1) 206 (95.0) 368 (92.5) 144 (88.9) 206 (93.2) 184 (93.0) 328 (91.6) 57 (90.5) 400 (93.5) 261 (91.3) Odds ratio (95% CI) 1.02 (0.99-1.04) 0.81 (0.44-1.49) 3.65 (2.00-6.67) 1.52(0.74-3.11) 2.34(1.07-5.10) 1.04 (0.49-2.22) 1.25 (0.66-2.39) 0.66 (0.26-1.67) P .10 .50 <.001 .03b .24 .03 .46d .91 .49 .39 NOTE. BCG, Bacille Calmette-Guerin; CI, confidence interval; IGRA, interferon-'y release assay. a The cutoff for TB incidence was 10 cases per 100,000 population (see text for details). Patients in Group A originated in Germany, Switzerland, Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States. Patients in Group B origi-nated in Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Czech Republic, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ethiopia, Great Britain, Greece, Croatia, Hungary, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka, Luxemburg, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Serbia and Montenegro, Sudan, Senegal, Spain, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay, Viet Nam, and Yemen. b By the x2 test for trend. published data for countries with an incidence of tuberculosis comparable to that of Switzerland. A recent German study7 found positive IGRA results for 25 (9.6%) of 261 participants. There was no association between the IGRA result and pro-fession, age, or sex (Table). Employees were stratified for risk of LTBI into 2 groups, according to their country of origin. An annual incidence of tuberculosis disease of 10 cases per 100,000 population was chosen as the cutoff1; employees from a coun-try with a higher rate were placed in group B, and all other participants were placed in group A. The IGRA positivity rate for employees from group A was 6.0%; the rate was 18.9% for employees from group B. There was a statistically significant positive association between a positive IGRA result and mem-bership in group B (odds ratio [OR], 3.65 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 2.0-6.7]; P < .001). The work place-associated risk of contracting tuberculosis was distributed as follows among the HCWs screened: low risk, 217 HCWs (27.9%); moderate risk, 398 (51.2%); high risk, 162 (20.8%) (Table). The work places considered to have a high risk were the Departments of Thoracic Surgery, Pneumology, Rheumatology, Infectious Diseases, Anesthesiology, Intensive Care, and Emergency Medicine. Nonmedical places of work, such as the laundry, the restaurant, the main office, and the administrative office, were considered to have low risk. The high-risk category of professions was considered to comprise nurses, physiotherapists, radiographers, and mem-bers of the maintenance, cleaning, and transportation services. All other HCWs, such as medical doctors or social workers, were considered to be in the moderate-risk category. Profes-sions without direct patient contact, such as secretaries, com-puter and technical specialists, scientists, pharmacists, and se-curity staff, were considered to have low risk. The IGRA positivity rate was 5.0% for HCWs who worked in low-risk work places, 7.5% for HCWs in moderate-risk work places, and 11.1% for HCWs in high-risk work places (Table). We detected a statistically significant trend for association of a https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1086/588587Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 16:00:09, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available atLETTERS TO THE EDITOR 6 8 3 positive IGRA result with work in a place with a high risk (x2 test for trend, P = .029). Both the country of origin and place of work were independent risk factors associated with a positive IGRA result, according to multiple logistic regression analysis. For employees originating from a group B country, the OR was 3.65 (95% CI, 2.00-6.67); the P value was less than .001. For employees working at a place with a high risk of tuberculosis exposure, the OR was 2.34 (95% CI, 1.07-5.10); thePvalue was .03. Our findings are consistent with reports by other groups. A Japanese study8 found no association between the IGRA result and the profession of the subjects tested. An analysis of infec-tion risk related to the place of work was not done, however. A recently published German study9 reported an increased infec-tion risk for HCWs engaged in geriatric care, but this study included no other hospital units. It can be argued that "place of work" is a surrogate for risk of exposure to contagious tuber-culosis related to particular patient populations, whereas "pro-fession" represents the intensity of contact during patient care. Since infectious tuberculosis is highly contagious, the latter may not be as important as the risk of being exposed at all. The place of work therefore seems to be a better surrogate than profession for the risk of contracting tuberculosis infection. In contrast to our study, both the Japanese and the German stud-ies8,9 reported a strong association between a positive IGRA result and increasing age among HCWs. The narrow age dis-tribution in our study population (mean ± SD, 32 ± 9.7 years) might have reduced our ability to detect such an association. (In the German study, the mean age [±SD] was 40.0 ± 10.4 years9; in the Japanese study, it was 41.4 ± 11.2 years.8) In conclusion, the IGRA was a useful tool for baseline screening for LTBI in this population of HCWs with a high background of BCG vaccination. Hospital employees had a measurable extra risk of tuberculosis infection that was associ-ated with certain places of work and with their country of ori-gin but not with their profession. A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S We thank Kathrin Franz and Susanna Bigler for their helpful discussions, Monika Gimmel for assistance with data collection, and the laboratory staff for technical support. We thank W. J. Looney for reading the manuscript. Potential conflicts of interest. All authors report no conflicts of interest relevant to this article. Ariane Stebler, MD; Patricia Iseli, MD; Kathrin Muhlemann, MD, PhD; Thomas Bodmer, MD From the Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Berne (A.S., K.M., T.B.), and the Occupational Health Care Service, University Hospital of Berne (P.I.), Berne, Switzerland. Address reprint requests to Thomas Bodmer, MD, University of Berne, In-stitute for Infectious Diseases, Friedbiihlstrasse 51, CH-3010 Berne, Switzer-land (thomas.bodmer@ifik.unibe.ch). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29:681-683 © 2008 by The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. All rights reserved. 0899-823X/2008/2907-0020$15.00. DOI: 10.1086/588587 R E F E R E N C E S 1. World Health Organization. Global TB database. Available at: http:// www.who.int./tb/country/en/index.html. Accessed October 2006. 2. American Thoracic Society. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;161: S221-S247. 3. Jensen PA, Lambert LA, lademarco MF, Ridzon R; Centers for Disease Control. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tu-berculosis in health-care settings. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54: 1-141. 4. Jasmer RM, Nahid P, Hopewell PC. Latent tuberculosis infection. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1860 -1866. 5. Pai M, Riley LW, Colford JM Jr. Interferon-gamma assays in the immuno-diagnosis of tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 2004;4:761-776. 6. Cellestis. QuantiFeron-TB Gold In-Tube: technical information; package insert. Accessed January 2008. 7. Nienhaus A, Schablon A, Bade CL, Siano B, Diel R. Evaluation of the inter-feron- -j^ -release assay in healthcare workers. IntArch Occup Environ Health 2008;81:295-300. 8. Harada N, Nakajima Y, Higuchi K, Sekiya Y, Rothel J, Mori T. Screening for tuberculosis infection using whole-blood interferon-7 and Mantoux test-ing among Japanese healthcare workers. Infect Control and Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27:442-448. 9. Nienhaus A, Schablon A, Loddenkemper A, Hauer B, Wolf N, Diel R. Prev-alence of latent tuberculosis infection in healthcare workers in geriatric care. Pneumologie 2007;61:613-616. https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1086/588587Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 16:00:09, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at

Whole-Blood Interferon-Gamma Release Assay for Baseline Tuberculosis Screening of Healthcare Workers at a Swiss University Hospital

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