This publication describes the scientific principles and techniques used for resource management of elasrnobranch fisheries with emphasis on the particular context of elasmobranchs. The management characteristics of these fishes are described - their common bycatch character and their biological constraints on productivity (low growth rate, late maturity and Tow fecundity). Stock assessment of elasrnobranchs is described in the context of rnanagement objectives in a wide management context. Special attention is given to accurate species identification given the prevalent aggregating of landings data across species, genera and often families in this group. Techniques and experiences for tagging elasmobranchs for population estimation are described as well as methods of genetic techniques for stock identification. Methods and problems involved in determining ,age, growth, fecundity and mortality rates are described and their use in age-structured models Within the context of the reproductive biology of these fishes. Demographic models to determine the productive of elasmobranch resources are described, Use of surveys to,complement information derived from fisheries is described together with management measures, Last, practices of shark utilization are noted.https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsbooks/1022/thumbnail.jp

Musick, John A.

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W&M ScholarWorks VIMS Books and Book Chapters Virginia Institute of Marine Science 2005 Introduction: management of sharks and their relatives (Elasmobranchii) John A. Musick Virginia Institute of Marine Science Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsbooks  Part of the Aquaculture and Fisheries Commons Recommended Citation Musick, John A., "Introduction: management of sharks and their relatives (Elasmobranchii)" (2005). VIMS Books and Book Chapters. 23. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsbooks/23 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in VIMS Books and Book Chapters by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact scholarworks@wm.edu. Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries VIMS SH 1 .F2 no.474 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation -FAO FISHERIES TECHNICAL PAPER 474 Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries Edited by John A. Musick Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia United States of America and Ramon Bonfil Wildlife Conservation Society New York United States of America FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2005 ~(nL; ,re..,~..., <SH j__ rJ, FAO VU) \\-y~ FISHERIES ' TECHN ICAL PAPER 474 1. Introduction: management of sharks and their relatives (Elasmobranchii) John A. Musick Virginia Institute of Marine Science PO Box 1346 Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA <jmusick@vims.edu> 1.1 INTRODUCTION Sharks and their relatives, the rays (subclass Elasmobranchii) are a group of about 1 100 species of mostly marine fishes (Compagno, 2001). Most sharks and rays that have been studied have slow growth, late maturity and low fecundity compared to bony fishes (Camhi et al., 1998). These attributes result in low intrinsic rates of increase (Smith, Au and Show, 1998) and low resilience to fishing mortality (Hoenig and Gruber, 1990). Thus, most shark and ray populations can withstand only modest levels of fishing without depletion and stock collapse (Camhi et al., 1998; Musick, 1999; Cortes, 2000), and decline more rapidly and are not able rebound as quickly as other fishes to population reductions (Sminkey and Musick, 1995; 1996). Consequently, management must be implemented at the inception of shark fisheries (Musick, 1999). However, this has not been the case for the vast majority of shark fisheries that have developed around the world (Bonfil, 1994). Rather, the overwhelming pattern has been one of no management, rapid stock decline and collapse with decades to recovery if recovery occurs at all (Anderson, 1990; Hoff and Musick, 1990). Although many sharks and rays have been of lower economic value in fisheries, the economic impact of stock collapse may be similar to more productive species because the population recovery time and economic loss last much longer (Musick, 1999). Well-documented cases of collapsed shark fisheries are the porbeagle (Lamna nasus) fishery in the North Atlantic (Anderson, 1990; Campana et al., 2001), the tope or soupfin shark ( Galeorhinus galeus) fishery off California and Australia (Ripley, 1946; Olsen, 1959), various basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) fisheries (Parker and Scott, 1965), the spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) fisheries both in the North Sea and off British Columbia (Holden, 1968; Ketchen, 1986; Hoff and Musick, 1990), and most recently the large coastal shark fishery off the east coast of the United States of America (Musick, Bransletter and Colvocorosses, 1993; NMFS 1999). While the reasons behind the collapse of some of these fisheries range from stock depletion to economic constraints or market changes (Ketchen, 1986; Myklevoll, 1989; Bonfil, 1994; 1999), the pattern of long periods for stock recovery prevails and at least the stock of California soupfin shark has not recovered to its former level after more than 50 years despite the lack of fishing. Although directed fisheries have been the cause of stock collapse for many species of elasmobranchs, a more important threat to long-lived sharks and rays is mortality in mixed-species fisheries and bycatch in fisheries targeted at other species (Bonfil, 1994; Musick, 1999). In those fisheries, species with higher production rates continue 2 Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries to support the fishery while species with lower rebound potential are driven to stock collapse or extirpation (Musick, 1999; Stevens et al., 2000). Thus, the sandtiger (Odontaspis taurus) and dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus) populations, which have very low intrinsic rates of increase, collapsed in the western North Atlantic shark fin fisheries in the late 1980s and show only modest signs of recovery after ten years of fishery regulation, while the more productive sandbar shark ( Carcharhinus plumbeus ), although depleted, continues to sustain the fisheries (Musick, Bransletter and Colvocorosses, 1993; Musick, 1999). Similarly, the barndoor skate (Dipturus laevis) is taken as bycatch in the New England and Canadian Atlantic ground fisheries and its decline and local extinction would have been unnoticed were it not for the fishery-independent data sets (where individual species are recorded) that were analysed by Casey and Myers (1998). Several other large species of skates may be potentially threatened with extinction (Dulvy and Reynolds, 2002). Imprecise reporting of fishery statistics where several species are lumped together as one category (i.e. "sharks" or "skates") can mask basic changes in community structure and profound reductions in populations of the larger, slower growing species (Dulvy et al., 2000). Thus, the traditional paradigm that fisheries will become commercially extinct before the targets of those fisheries become biologically extirpated may not apply in many cases. Several species of elasmobranchs depleted by fisheries have recently come under protection of national regulations. The barndoor skate, two species of sawfishes (Pristis pectinata, P. perotteti) and the sandtiger ( Carcharias taurus ), dusky ( Carcharhinus obscurus), and night (Carcharhinus signatus) sharks were added in 1999 to the United States National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Candidate List for Threatened and Endangered Species because of large documented declines caused by overfishing (Diaz-Soltera, 1999). Pristis pectinata has since been listed as Endangered. The sandtiger, dusky and several other species of sharks became protected under the NMFS Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean (NMFS, 1999). The sand tiger and great white sharks are also protected by regulations in South Africa and Australia (Camhi et al., 1998). In recent years the status of elasmobranch species has come under closer scrutiny worldwide by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Shark Specialist Group (SSG), and 62 shark species out of 226 species assessed are currently recognized as threatened with extinction (IUCN, 2003 ). The number of threatened species will certainly increase as all the sharks and batoids are assessed (> 1 100 species). In addition to the obvious concern over possible extinction of some elasmobranch species and the ensuing economic hardship due to the collapse of the fisheries, a further problem is the negative effects that strong declines in apex predators can have on ecosystems. The removal of sharks occupying the role of top predators in their ecosystems can have not only the expected effect of releasing control over their main prey, but sometimes unexpected second and third degree effects on non-prey species through trophic linkages (Stevens et al., 2000; Schindler et al., 2002). International concern over the sustainability of shark fisheries started to build in the late 1980s and early 1990s as shark fisheries expanded globally in response to lucrative shark fin markets in southeast Asia (Bonfil, 1994; Rose, 1996 ). In 1994 the Ninth Conference of Parties to the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) adopted a resolution on "The Status of International Trade in Shark Species." The resolution called upon the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to review information on the global status of shark stocks and the effects of international trade on them. FAO, with appropriate international expert consultation developed an International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks) which was adopted in 1999. For the purpose of the IPOA-Sharks, the term "shark" includes all chondrichthyans (sharks, batoids, and chimeras). The guidelines (FAO, 2000) for the IPOA-Sharks state that nations contributing to fishing mortality of shark stocks should participate in their conservation and management, that shark resources be used sustainably, and that waste and discards be minimized. Shark fishing nations were called upon in the IPOA-Sharks to prepare National Shark Assessment Reports (Appendix 1) and to implement National Shark Plans (Appendix 2). Unfortunately, when progress on the IPOA-Sharks was reviewed by the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) in February 2001 and by CITES in 2002 it was found that only a small number of shark fishing nations had submitted Shark Assessment Reports or Plans. Many of the countries that had submitted these documents had not adequately addressed the issues raised in the IPOA nor did they propose sufficient action to begin precautionary sustainable shark fisheries management (IUCN, 2002 a,b ). The objectives of the present manual are to provide the information necessary for fisheries managers to effectively address the IPOA Sharks, thus leading to sustainable shark fisheries. We attempt to provide a step by step approach to collecting the information necessary for proper stock assessment and sustainable shark management. Each chapter progresses from simple to more complex techniques. We begin in Chapter 2 by explaining the objectives of fisheries management and the methods that may be used to achieve those objectives. Then, in Chapter 3 we describe how to identify sharks and rays. In Chapter 4 we describe the value and methodology of tagging studies in shark management and in Chapter 5 we provide similar treatment for genetic techniques. Chapter 6 explains how to determine age and growth and Chapter 7 describes techniques to study reproductive biology. Chapter 8 describes how to estimate mortality. In Chapter 9 we review demographic population models and in Chapter 10 stock assessment and population dynamics models are explained. Chapters 11 and 12 describe, respectively, fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent sampling procedures. Chapter 13 reviews options that may be available for managing elasmobranch stocks. Lastly, in Chapter 14 we provide a brief overview of elasmobranch utilization. This paper is a contribution from the National Shark Research Consortium and is also contribution No. 2563 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. 1.2 LITERATURE CITED Anderson, E.D. 1990. Fishery models as applied to elasmobranch fisheries. In H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber & T. Taniuchi (eds). Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of fisheries, pp. 473-484. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report NMFS 90. Bonfil, R. 1994. Overview of world elasmobranch fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 341. Rome. 119 pp. Bonfil, R. 1999. The dogfish (Squalus acanthias) fishery of British Columbia, Canada and its management. In R. Shotton (ed.). Case studies of the management of elasmobranch fisheries, pp. 608-655. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 378. Rome. Cambi, M., Fowler, S., Musick, J., Brautigam, A. & Fordham, S. 1998. Sharks and their relatives: Ecology and Conservation. Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Occas. Pap. No. 20. Campana, S., Marks, I., Joyce, W. & Harley, S. 2001. Analytical assessment of the porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) population in the northwest Atlantic with estimates of long-term sustainable yield. Research Doc 2001/067 Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat. Ottawa, Canada. Casey, J.M. & Myers, R.A. 1998. Near extinction of a large, widely distributed fish. Science, 281: 690-692. Compagno, L.J.V.2001. Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Vol. 2. Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1. Rome. 269 pp. 3 4 elasmobranch Cortes, E. 2000. Life History Patterns and Correlations in Sharks. Rev. Fish. Sci., 8(4): 299-344. Diaz-Soltera, H. 1999. Endangered and threatened species; revision of candidate species list under the Endangered Species Act. Federal Register, 64(120): 33166-33467. Dulvy, N.K., Reynolds, J .D., Metcalfe, J .D. & Glanville, J. 2000. Fisheries stability, local extinctions and shifts in community structure in skates. Conserv. Biol., 14: 1-11. Dulvy, N.K. & Reynolds,J.D. 2002. Predicting extinction vulnerability in skates. Conserv. Biol., 16: 440-450. FAO. 2000. Fisheries Management: 1. Conservation and Management of Sharks. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries 4 (Supplement 1): 37 pp. Hoenig, J.M. & Gruber, S.H. 1990. Life-history patterns in the elasmobranchs: implications or fisheries management. In H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber & T. Taniuchi (eds). Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of fisheries, pp. 1-16. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service) 90. Hoff, T.B. & Musick, J .A. 1990. Western North Atlantic shark-fishery management problems and informational requirements. In H.L. Pratt, Jr., S.H. Gruber & T. Taniuchi (eds). Elasmobranchs as living resources: advances in the biology, ecology, systematics, and the status of fisheries, pp. 455-472. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report NMFS 90. Holden, M.J. 1968. The rational exploitation of the Scottish-Norwegian stocks of spurdogs (Squalus acanthias L.). Fish. Investig. Minist. Agric. Fish. Food U.K. Ser. 2, 25(8): 28. IUCN Species Survival Commission's Shark Specialist Group & TRAFFIC. 2002a. CITES Animals Committee Document (AC 18 Doc 19.2.). http:l/www.cites.org/englctteelanimals/18/agenda.shtml IUCN Species Survival Commission's Shark Specialist Group & TRAFFIC. 2002b. The Role of CITES in the Conservation and Management of Sharks. http://www. cites. orgl common/notifs/2002/ ESF042A.pdf IUCN Species Survival Commission's Shark Specialist Group. 2003. The threatened states of sharks and related species. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu!fish!organizations/SSG/ SSGDefault.htm Ketchen, K.S. 1986. The spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in the Northeast Pacific and a history of its utilization. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 88: 78 pp. Musick, J.A. 1999. Ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals. In J.A. Musick (ed.). Life in the slow lane: ecology and conservation of long-lived marine animals, pp. 1-10. Amer. Fish. Soc. Symp. 23. Bethesda, Maryland. Musick, J.A., Bransletter, S. & Colvocorosses, J.A. 1993. Trends in shark abundance from 1974 to 1991 for the Chesapeake Bight region of the U.S. Mid-Atlantic Coast. In S. Bransletter (ed.). Conservation Biology of Elasmobranchs, pp. 1-18. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 115. Myklevoll, S. 1989. Norway's porbeagle fishery. Working Document presented at the ICES Study Group on Elasmobranch Fisheries. Dublin, Ireland, 26-28 April 1989. (mimeo). NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 1999. Final fishery management plan for the Atlantic tunas, swordfish and sharks. NOAA, NMFS, Silver Spring, MD. Olsen, A.M. 1959. The status of the school shark fishery in south-eastern Australia waters. Aust.]. Mar. Freshwater Res., 10: 150-176. Parker, H.W. & Scott, F.C. 1965. Age, size and vertebral calcification in the basking shark, Cetorhinus maximus (Gunnerus). Zool. Meded. (Leiden), 40: 305-319. Ripley, W.E. 1946. The soup-fin shark and the fishery. Fish. Bull., 64: 7-37. Rose, D.A. 1996. Shark Fisheries and Trade in the Americas, Volume 1: North America. TRAFFIC. Cambridge U.K. 143 pp. and their relatives Schindler D.E., Essington, T.E., Kitchell, J .F., Boggs, C. & Hilborn, R. 2002. Sharks and tunas: Fisheries impacts on predators with contrasting life histories. Ecological Applications, 12(3): 735-748. Sminkey, T.R. & Musick, J .A. 1995. Age and growth of the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus, before and after population depletion. Copeia, 4: 871-883. Sminkey, T.R. & Musick, J .A. 1996. Demographic analysis of the sandbar shark, Carcharhinus plumbeus, in the western North Atlantic. Fish Bull., 94: 341-347. Smith, S.E., Au, D.W. & Show, C. 1998. Intrinsic rebound potentials of 26 species of Pacific sharks. Mar. Freshw. Res., 41: 663-678. Stevens, J .D., Bonfil, R., Dulvy, N. & Walker, P. 2000. The effects of fishing on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57: 476-494. 5 

Introduction: management of sharks and their relatives (Elasmobranchii)

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Introduction: management of sharks and their relatives (Elasmobranchii)

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