In this study, the in vitro interaction of two standard antibiotics – cotrimoxazole and ampicillin trihydrate were studied by the checkerboard technique, using clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. The organisms were exposed to the individual antibiotics as well as different combination ratios of the same, and the zones of inhibition as well as the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) measured. Synergistic interactions were recorded by the antibiotics against Staph. aureus and S. typhi while indifferent interaction occurred with P. aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa however, showed resistance to the two antibiotics when they were used alone. The implication is that cotrimoxazole and ampicillin can be used in combination as a superior treatment of infections caused by Staph. aureus and S. typhi

BROWN, SA

ESIMONE, CO

IBEZIM, EC

NNAMANI, PO

OBODO, CE

OKORIE, O

ONYISHI, IV

English

AJOL - African Journals Online

African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 5 (13), pp. 1284-1288, 3 July 2006 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB ISSN 1684–5315 © 2006 Academic Journals       Full Length Research Paper  A study of the in vitro interaction of cotrimoxazole and ampicillin using the checkerboard method  IBEZIM, E. C.1, ESIMONE, C. O.1, OKORIE, O.2, ONYISHI, I. V.2, NNAMANI, P. O.1, BROWN, S. A.3 and OBODO, C. E.4  1Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 2Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Industrial Pharmacy, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 3Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Uyo. 4Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Management, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.  Accepted 28 April, 2006  In this study, the in vitro interaction of two standard antibiotics – cotrimoxazole and ampicillin trihydrate were studied by the checkerboard technique, using clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi. The organisms were exposed to the individual antibiotics as well as different combination ratios of the same, and the zones of inhibition as well as the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) measured. Synergistic interactions were recorded by the antibiotics against Staph. aureus and S. typhi while indifferent interaction occurred with P. aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa however, showed resistance to the two antibiotics when they were used alone. The implication is that cotrimoxazole and ampicillin can be used in combination as a superior treatment of infections caused by Staph. aureus and S. typhi.   Key words: In vitro interaction, cotrimoxazole, ampicillin, Peudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi.   INTRODUCTION  Therapy with antimicrobial combinations has been in use for a long time and is often applied to take advantage of different mechanisms of action and/or toxicity profiles of the agents involved (Ryback et al., 1996). The combination of two different compounds may result in a biocidal (bactericidal, fungicidal or virucidal) activity, which is significantly greater than the sum of the activities of the agents individually. When this phenomenon is exhibited, the combination is said to be synergistic. If the combination results to a worsening effect, it is said to be antagonistic. A result which is less than synergistic but not antagonistic is said to be indifferent or additive (Lorian, 1991). Synergistic combinations are often sought in infections     *Corresponding Author’s E-mail: ecibezim@yahoo.com. where the development of resistance and/or subsequent failure to monotherapy is prevalent, in empirical treatment of life threatening infections prior to identification of the responsible organism, prevention of emergence of bacterial resistance and treatment of polymicrobial infections. Combination antimicrobial therapy should be considered for the treatment of serious Gram-negative infections caused by Enterobacter cloacae, Peudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcesceis and certain gram-positive infections by Enterococcus spp. and Staphylococcus spp. (Rybak et al., 1996). Selection of agents should be dependent on local susceptibility patterns, clinical experience, site of infection, potential activities and cost. Among the techniques employed in the evaluation of the combination of two antimicrobials potentially exhibiting synergism, are the checkerboard technique and the time-killing curve method. The checkerboard or fractional    inhibitory     concentration    (FIC)    technique employs  a  methodology  similar  to  that  utilized  for  the     determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The combination is said to have synergistic effect if there is a 4-fold reduction in the MIC of each antimicrobial agent tested alone (Rybak et al., 1996). In the time-killing curve method on the other hand, the reduction of a fixed inoculum over 24 h exposure of combination antimicrobials is compared with the effect of each agent used alone (Vinh et al., 1980).  Cotrimoxazole, a combination of a sulphonamide with trimetoprim, is a synergistic combination, which, just like ampicillin, has been used in treating many bacterial infections (Stolz et al., 1977; The Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979; Robert, 1980). However, some bacteria have been known to develop resistance to both antibiotics. For instance, in a survey of children with otitis media in Memphis, Tennessee, 29% of isolates of Staphylococcus aureus were penicillin resistant and 25% of these were also resistant to cotrimoxazole. Consequently, the study of the ampicillin-cotrimoxazole combination becomes logical, as frequency of development of microbial resistance to the combination is likely to be lower than it would be to either agent used alone. In terms of mechanism of action, cotrimoxazole acts by inhibiting the bacterial nucleic acid synthesis while ampicillin acts by inhibiting cell wall synthesis or activation of enzymes that disrupt bacterial cell walls to cause loss of viability and often cell lysis (Henry et al., 1986; Mandell et al., 1996; Norden, 1992; Okore, 1990; Jawetz, 1995). The in vitro susceptibility patterns of several other antimicrobial combinations against varying microorganisms have also been demonstrated. For example, striking synergistic bactericidal activity of glycine-carbenicllin, EDTA combinations against a particular strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been observed which none of the agents used alone was capable of (Gerberick et al., 1980). Chinwuba et al. (1991) have also shown that carbenicillin, netilmicin, ceftriaxone and ampicillin produced inter-isolate variations in the synergy of their combinations with gentamicin against P. aeruginosa. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the occurrence of interaction between ampicillin and cotrimoxazole, using the checkerboard technique.   MATERIALS AND METHODS  Materials  The culture media used in the study included agar, McConkey agar and deoxycholate citrate agar all from Oxoid, USA and nutrient broth, mannitol salt agar and cetrimide agar all from Merck, Germany. Ampicillin was obtained from Lyka Labs, India, cotrimoxazole from Juhel, Enugu and acetone from BDH, England. Clinical isolates of the microorganisms were obtained from Kenol Laboratories, Nsukka and included Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staph. aureus and P. aeruginosa. Ibezim et al.       1285    Preparation of culture media  All the culture media were formulated according to the manufacturers’ specifications. Basically, they were weighed, dissolved in the required amount of water with the aid of heat, distributed in Bijou bottles (10 ml capacities) or test tubes (2 ml volumes) and then sterilized in the autoclave (Gallenkamp, England) at 121°C for 15 min.   Isolation and purification of test organisms  Gram staining was carried out on all the isolated microorganisms. Further characterization, isolation and purification were carried out by streaking the inculum on sterile agar plate and subsequent culturing in selective media for each microorganism. Staph. aureus was culture on mannitol salt agar, P. aeruginosa on cetrimide agar and S. typhi on deoxycholate citrate agar.   Activation and maintenance of organisms   The isolated, purified and characterized test isolates were subcultured weekly on fresh nutrient agar slants, stored at 4°C for 24 h and later incubated at 37°C for 24 h prior to each study. The organism was successively subcultured in 10 ml sterile nutrient agar slant for 3 days.   Standardization of microbial cultures   Five milliliter (5 ml) of sterile water was added to 5 ml of agar slant containing 24 h old culture of the particular microorganism and shaken carefully for a thorough harvest of the organism. The microbial suspension containing 109 colony forming units (cfu)/ml was serially diluted to obtain a population of 103 cfu/ml, which was the standard inoculum size for each test.   Preparation of drug stock solution   The stock solution of ampicillin was prepared by weighing and subsequently dissolving appropriate quantities of the drug in 100 ml of double strength nutrient broth. Serial dilutions (2-fold) of the this stock solution were undertaken to get the appropriate drug concentrations in 2 ml single strength sterile nutrient broth in a test tube. For the cotrimoxazole, appropriate quantity was solubilised with acetone and thereafter distributed in suitable quantity of double strength sterile nutrient broth to obtain the target drug concentration. Two-fold serial dilutions of this stock solution were made with the nutrient broth to obtain the desired graded drug concentrations in single strength nutrient broth.   Susceptibility test  A 0.02 ml volume of the standardized inoculum of each test organism was introduced into the respective dilutions of each drug in the test tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 20 h. Minimum inhibitory concentration was taken as the lowest concentration of each drug, which prevented the visible growth of each test isolate.   Test for synergism  Stock solutions of ampicillin  containing  2000, 19.7 and  10  µg/ml,  1286      Afr. J. Biotechnol    Table 1. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole against various test organisms.                           Figure 1. Activity of different combination ratios cotrimoxazole and ampicilin against designated organisms (1=9:2; 2=8:2; 3:73; 4=6:4; 5=5:5; 6=4:6 7=3:7; 8=2:8 9=1 9).                       Figure 2. Isobologram showing synergy of  cotrimoxazole and ampicilin combination sagainst the test organisms  and cotrimoxazole containing 3409.1, 1000 and 500 µg/ml were suitably prepared in double strength nutrient broth. Varying proportions of the drugs were combined in ratios ranging from 0:10 to 10:0 of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole, according to the continuous variation checkerboard method (Okore, 1990). Each sample was serially diluted (2-fold) with 2 ml of single strength sterile nutrient broth in ten test tubes followed by addition of 0.02 ml of standardized inoculum of a given microorganism. These tubes were incubated at 37°C for 20 h. The combined activities of the drugs against the organisms were   determined on the basis of the FIC index expressed as:  FIC Index  =  A1/A  +  B1/B   Where A1 and B1 are the respective concentrations of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole producing the combined MICs, while A and B are the MICs of the single drugs.   RESULTS AND DISCUSSION   The results of the MIC determination for ampicillin and cotrimoxazole when used singly against the test organisms are presented in Table 1, while Figure 1 shows the results of the combinations. Table 2 shows the MICs and FICs of the various combinations of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole against P. aeruginosa and S. typhi, while Table 3 shows the same parameters against S. aureus. The results obtained show that the test isolates, S. typhi and S. aureus were susceptible to ampicillin while P. aeruginosa was resistant to both ampicillin (MIC > 2000 µg/ml) and cotrimoxazole (MIC = 1704.55 µg/ml). S. typhi and Staph. aureus were both resistant to cotrimoxazole, with each exhibiting an MIC of 500 µg/ml. From Tables 2 and 3, indifferent interaction was obtained in the combination of the two drugs against P. aeruginosa, while synergistic effects resulted in the combinations against S. aureus and S. typhi. The combination of cotrimoxazole and ampicillin at the ratios of 9:1, 8:2 and 5:5 showed the greatest synergistic effects against S. typhi. Conversely, S.  aureus was most sensitive to the combination ratios 6:4, 5:5, 2:8, and 1:9. The FIC index values of >1 obtained for the combined drugs against P. aeruginosa indicate an indifferent activity, while the values of <1 obtained for the combinations against S. typhi and Staph. aureus indicate synergism (Elion et al., 1954). Figure 2 shows the isobolograms of the interactions of cotrimoxazole and ampicillin against S. typhi and Staph. aureus. The concavity of the isobolograms confirms synergism of the interaction (Vinh et al., 1980). The implication of this study is that combinations of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole can be employed in the superior treatment of salmonellosis and other infections caused by S. typhi as well as in infections caused by Staph.  aureus. In  conclusion,  a  synergistic   interaction Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (µg/ml) Drugs P. Aeruginos Escherichia coli S. typhi S. aureus Ampicillin >2000 1.953 1.231 0.156 Cotrimoxazole 1704.55 1000 500 500 00.20.40.60.811 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Ratio of cotrimoxazole to ampicillinActivity indexSalmonella typhiStaphylococcus aureus00.20.40.60.811.20 20 40 60MIC of ampicillin (microgram/ml)MIC of cotrimoxazole (microgram/ml)Salmonella typhiStaphylococcusaureusIbezim et al.       1287    Table 2. MICs and FICs of varying combinations of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole against P. aeruginosa and S. typhi.  Drug combination ratio Cotrimoxazole:Ampicillin) MIC (µg/ml)(Cotrim:Ampic) FIC (µg/ml) (Cotrim:Ampic)  FIC Index Effect Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10:0 1704.55: - - - - 9:1 3068.19:200 1.8: 0.0125 1.812 Indifferent 8:2 2727.28:400 1.6:0.025 1.625 Indifferent 7:3 2386.37:600 1.4: 0.036 1.436 Indifferent 6:4 2045.16: 800 1.2 : 0.050 1.250 Indifferent 5:5 1704.55:1000 1.0 : 0.063 1.063 Indifferent 4:6 No inhibition - - - 3:7 No inhibition - - - 2:8 No inhibition - - - 1:9 No inhibition - - - 10:0 No inhibition - - - Salmonella typhi 10:0 500: - - - - 9:1 28.13:0.123 0.056: 0.100 0.156 Synergism 8:2 12.50:0.123 0.025: 0.100 0.125 Synergism 7:3 21.88: 0.231 0.044: 0.188 0.232 Synergism 6:4 9.38:0.246 0.019: 0.110 0.219 Synergism 5:5 3.91:0.154 0.008: 0.125 0.134 Synergism 4:6 6.25:0.370 0.013: 0.300 0.313 Synergism 3:7 4.69:0.431 0.009: 0.350 0.359 Synergism 2:8 3.13:0.493 0.006: 0.400 0.407 Synergism 1:9 3.13: 1.106 0.006: 0.899 0.905 Synergism 10:0 - : 1.231 - - -     Table 3. MICs and FICs of varying combinations of ampicillin and cotrimoxazole against Staphylococcus aureus  Drug combination ratio Cotrim/Ampicillin MIC (µg/ml) (Cotrim:Ampic) FIC(µg/ml) (Cotrim:Ampic) FIC Index Effect 10:0 500: - - - - 9:1 56.25: 0.063 0.11: 0.401 0.513 Synergism 8:2 25.00: 0.063 0.050: 0.401 0.451 Synergism 7:3 21.88: 0.094 0.044: 0.601 0.645 Synergism 6:4 4.69: 0.031 0.009: 0.200 0.210 Synergism 5:5 3.91: 0.039 0.008: 0.250 0.258 Synergism 4:6 6.25: 0.094 0.013: 0.601 0.013 Synergism 3:7 2.34: 0.055 0.005: 0.350 0.355 Synergism 2:8 0.78: 0.031 0.002: 0.200 0.202 Synergism 1:9 0.39: 0.035 0.001: 0.225 0.226 Synergism 10:0 - : 0.156 - - -   occurred between ampicillin and cotrimoxazole against clinical isolates of S. typhi and Staph. aureus. An indifferent interaction however occurred between the two drugs against P. aeruginosa.  REFERENCES  Chinwuba ZGN, Chiori CO, Ghobashy AA, Okore VC (1991). 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Combination antimicrobial therapy for bacterial infections, Guidelines for the Clinician, Drugs 52 (3): 390 – 402. Stolz E, Michael M, Zwabi FGH (1977). Potentiation of sulphamethoxazole by trimethoprim in Neisseria gonorrhoea strains, Chemother, 23: 65-72. The Pharmaceutical Codex (1979) The Pharmaceutical Press, London. Vinh BT, David WW, Hargopal T (1980). Antimicrobial synergism of pipercollin and gentamicin against Ps. aeruginosa, S. aureus and S. faecalis, Chemother.26: 65-72.                                    

A study of the in vitro interaction of cotrimoxazole and ampicillin using the checkerboard method

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A study of the in vitro interaction of cotrimoxazole and ampicillin using the checkerboard method

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