Knowledge based on research is the most distinctive resource that universities have to share. The traditional approach has been simply communicating the results of research. The psychologist Albert Bandura has participated in a far more sophisticated and efficacious form of outreach in which his pathbreaking research on influencing human behavior is reinforced by multi-disciplinary and multi-investigator research in aid of writers, actors, and communication specialists. Research identifies critical issues and illuminates the causes and conditions surrounding them, guides the planning of responses, and tests their efficacy. Research-based outreach requires the theoretical and methodological tools of a multi-disciplinary team

Hamilton, Stephen F

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The Journal of Extension Volume 46 Number 1 Article 5 2-1-2008 Research-Based Outreach: Albert Bandura's Model Stephen F. Hamilton Cornell University, sfh3@cornell.edu This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License. Recommended Citation Hamilton, S. F. (2008). Research-Based Outreach: Albert Bandura's Model. The Journal of Extension, 46(1), Article 5. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/joe/vol46/iss1/5 This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at TigerPrints. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Journal of Extension by an authorized editor of TigerPrints. For more information, please contact kokeefe@clemson.edu. 	 JOEHOME JOURNAL GUIDELINES ABOUT	JOE CONTACT NATIONAL	JOB	BANKCurrent	Issues Back	IssuesFebruary	2008	//	Volume	46	//	Number	1	//	Feature	Articles	//	1FEA2Research-Based	Outreach:	Albert	Bandura's	ModelAbstractKnowledge	based	on	research	is	the	most	distinctive	resource	that	universities	have	to	share.The	traditional	approach	has	been	simply	communicating	the	results	of	research.	Thepsychologist	Albert	Bandura	has	participated	in	a	far	more	sophisticated	and	efficacious	form	ofoutreach	in	which	his	pathbreaking	research	on	influencing	human	behavior	is	reinforced	bymulti-disciplinary	and	multi-investigator	research	in	aid	of	writers,	actors,	and	communicationspecialists.	Research	identifies	critical	issues	and	illuminates	the	causes	and	conditionssurrounding	them,	guides	the	planning	of	responses,	and	tests	their	efficacy.	Research-basedoutreach	requires	the	theoretical	and	methodological	tools	of	a	multi-disciplinary	team.	Universities	live	in	tension	between	the	isolated	contemplation	of	the	monastery	and	the	hecticexchange	of	the	marketplace.	Universities	emerged	in	twelfth-century	European	cities	and	towns,eventually	displacing	monasteries	and	cathedral	schools	as	centers	of	learning,	and	expanding	thecurriculum	to	prepare	future	doctors,	lawyers,	rulers,	and	warriors	as	well	as	clerics	(Haskins,1923/1957).	Although	universities	have	continued	to	enjoy	some	degree	of	protective	isolationfrom	the	"real	world,"	they	also	retain	obligations	to	the	societies	that	charter	and	pay	for	them.Living	in	tension	between	the	monastery	and	the	marketplace	gives	universities	their	capacity	tobring	knowledge	to	bear	on	practical	problems.Extension,	outreach,	and	engagement	manifest	that	creative	tension.	(These	terms	can	bedistinguished,	but	they	have	much	in	common.)	When	universities	share	some	of	their	resourceswith	people	beyond	the	academic	community,	they	simultaneously	demonstrate	the	value	of	thesupport	and	protection	they	enjoy	and	give	up	some	of	that	protection.	Land-grant	universitieswere	founded	with	a	mission	to	the	marketplace,	but	now	nearly	all	institutions	of	higher	educationin	the	United	States	claim	to	do	more	than	teach	and	conduct	esoteric	research.	They	encouragestudents,	faculty,	and	staff	to	participate	in	their	communities,	point	with	pride	to	theircontributions	to	economic	development,	and	issue	press	releases	about	the	benefits	promised	bytheir	faculty's	newest	research	findings.Energy	and	expertise	are	two	of	the	resources	universities	have	to	share.	Person-power	is	found	inabundance	on	campuses.	Students	especially,	but	also	staff	and	faculty	can	pitch	in	to	make	thingshappen	in	their	local	communities	and	elsewhere;	alternative	spring	breaks	to	help	clean	uphurricane	damage	along	the	Gulf	Coast	are	an	excellent	recent	example.	Such	high-energyactivities	are	worthwhile,	but	the	kind	of	outreach	that	higher	education	can	do	better	than	anyother	institutions	is	grounded	in	knowledge,	the	academy's	stock-in-trade.Not	so	long	ago,	simply	disseminating	reliable	research-based	information	was	a	greatcontribution,	one	in	which	universities	excelled	all	other	institutions.	Cooperative	Extension	is	theinstitutional	epitome	of	this	contribution.	But	as	the	volume	of	information	multiplies	and	electronictechnology	makes	information	more	easily	accessible,	universities	are	in	competition	with	manyother	sources	of	information.	The	challenge	has	become	to	reach	out	effectively	and	reciprocally,to	move	from	being	the	fount	of	knowledge	toward	joint	participation	with	community	partners,being	responsive	to	pressing	needs	while	inquiring	continuously	into	how	best	to	meet	thoseneeds.	Outreach	of	this	nature	helps	to	sustain	the	balance-in-tension	between	the	university	as	acloister	for	learning	and	the	university	as	an	actor	in	the	affairs	of	the	day.	(See	Peters,	Jordan,Stephen	F.	HamiltonAssociate	Provost	for	Outreach,	Professor	of	Human	DevelopmentCornell	UniversityIthaca,	New	Yorksfh3@cornell.eduAdamek,	&	Alter,	2005,	for	an	insightful	treatment	of	this	type	of	engagement.)Social	Cognition	in	the	Service	of	Health	and	WelfareDelivering	the	Henry	Ricciuti	Lecture	at	Cornell,	Albert	Bandura	provided	an	exceptionally	rigorousexample	of	research-based	outreach,	which	he	prefers	to	call	"translational	research."	Consideredby	many	to	be	the	world's	most	eminent	psychologist,	Stanford's	Bandura	is	best	known	for	hisambitious	and	elegant	experiments	and	his	powerful	theoretical	writings.	The	use	of	his	research	inoutreach	activities	helps	to	re-define	what	it	means	to	do	research-based	extension.	(See	alsoDunifon,	Duttweiler,	Pillemer,	Tobias,	&	Trochim,	2004).He	described	several	programs	in	developing	countries	that	are	using	his	insights	to	alter	attitudesand	behavior	toward	gender	equality,	family	planning,	and	health	behavior.	He	showed	briefillustrations	and	discussed	"serial	dramas"	broadcast	by	radio	or	television	in	Brazil,	China,	India,Mexico,	and	Tanzania.	These	programs	have	been	carefully	designed	according	to	his	principles	ofsocial	influence	and	behavior	change	and	their	impact	has	been	stunning.	Enrollment	in	literacyprograms	in	Mexico	rose	from	100,000	to	1,000,000	when	TV	characters	learned	to	read.	Radiodramas	in	Tanzania	led	to	increased	condom	distribution	and	reductions	in	numbers	of	sexualpartners.	As	a	rigorous	test	of	their	impact,	broadcasts	were	limited	initially	to	one	half	of	thecountry.	Subsequent	broadcasts	to	the	other	half	of	the	country	yielded	the	same	changes(Bandura,	2004).The	Many	Contributions	of	ResearchResearch	contributed	in	different	ways	and	at	multiple	points	to	these	successful	efforts	at"fostering	society-wide	changes."	Bandura's	presentation	began	with	data	establishing	the	need	toreduce	unsustainable	population	growth	in	developing	countries.	Demographic	and	public	healthdata	directed	outreach	toward	demonstrated	needs	and	toward	those	most	in	need.	Those	dataalso	serve	as	a	baseline	for	subsequent	evaluation.Bandura's	scholarship	on	The	Social	Foundations	of	Thought	and	Action	(1986)	provided	thetheoretical	grounding	for	the	serial	dramas.	As	a	partial	illustration,	his	research	has	found	thateffective	modeling	for	behavior	change	entails	not	only	a	positive	model	but	a	negative	contrastingmodel	plus	a	transitional	model,	someone	who	is	going	through	the	change	from	negative	topositive.	Making	use	of	this	finding,	script	writers	created	characters	to	serve	as	these	three	typesof	models.A	third	type	of	research	also	supported	the	script	writers'	creativity.	People	representing	theintended	audiences	were	interviewed	about	the	kinds	of	problems	and	issues	that	are	important	tothem,	revealing	as	well	how	they	think	and	talk	about	these	matters.	A	variant	of	market	research(more	specifically,	social	marketing),	this	form	of	inquiry	aided	the	script	writers	and	actors	inportraying	situations	with	which	audiences	could	identify.	As	the	programs	aired,	additionalresearch	monitored	audience	response,	checking	on	which	characters	proved	attractive	and	whichsituations	challenged	audience	members	to	think	and	act	differently.	Depending	on	one'sdiscipline,	this	can	be	thought	of	as	either	additional	market	research	or	as	formative	evaluation.No	matter	how	well-crafted	it	may	be,	a	serial	drama	has	no	impact	without	an	audience.	Researchon	communication	and	on	the	diffusion	of	innovations	guided	both	the	broadcasting	of	theprograms	and	the	provision	of	supplementary	programs,	such	as	increased	availability	ofcontraception.	Research	of	this	nature	revealed,	for	example,	that	villages	in	which	peoplegathered	around	one	radio	to	listen	to	a	serial	drama	proved	to	be	ideal	settings	for	post-broadcastdiscussions,	which	augmented	the	program's	impact.	It	also	confirmed	the	importance	of	givingaudience	members	access	to	services	and	sources	of	information	that	would	help	them	to	followthrough	on	intentions	to	change	their	behavior	in	response	to	the	serial	dramas,	for	example,	atoll-free	number	to	call	for	help	in	combating	spouse	abuse.Any	enterprise	of	this	magnitude	must	be	carefully	evaluated.	The	evaluation	research	Banduradescribed	went	well	beyond	the	typical	survey	of	how	participants	responded	to	a	program	andeven	beyond	most	attempts	to	assess	a	program's	impact.	Country-wide	social	and	healthstatistics	were	used	in	time-series	designs	to	track	changes	across	entire	populations.	Theexperimental	design	employed	in	Tanzania	yielded	exceptionally	powerful	confirmation	of	theprogram's	effectiveness.	Everett	Rogers,	who	originated	research	on	the	diffusion	of	innovations(Rogers,	2003),	was	responsible	for	this	experiment	(Rogers	et	al.,	1999).One	more	kind	of	research	contributed	to	the	project	Bandura	described.	It	is	so	obvious	as	toremain	implicit:	the	content	conveyed	in	the	programs	is	supported	by	research	(e.g.,	condom	usereduces	the	risk	of	HIV-AIDS	infection).	This	brings	us	back	to	the	dissemination	of	research-basedinformation.	Information	dissemination	remains	a	necessary	element	of	contemporary	outreach,but	it	is	no	longer	sufficient.Social	science	research	is	essential	to	improving	the	design	and	delivery	of	outreach,	but	researchin	other	disciplines	can	provide	the	content,	and	the	arts	and	humanities	can	make	uniquecontributions.	Bandura	was	quick	to	praise	the	gifted	writers	who	created	engaging	characters	andplot	lines	and	the	talented	actors	who	brought	them	to	life,	without	which	his	theoretical	conceptscould	not	have	been	applied	effectively.	Serial	dramas	also	required	musicians,	camera	operators,set	designers,	and	other	creative	talent.	A	New	Yorker	article	credits	Mexican	TV	director,	MiguelSabido,	with	developing	serial	dramas.	Sabido,	in	turn,	credits	Bandura	with	the	insights	that	guidehis	work	(Rosin,	2006).Forms	of	Research	That	Contribute	to	OutreachBandura's	model	illustrates	a	rich	and	complex	interweaving	of	research	with	outreach.	Thethreads	can	be	pulled	apart	and	arrayed	in	rough	chronological	order	to	illustrate	an	ideal	case	ofresearch-based	outreach.1.	 First,	outreach	is	directed	toward	problems	whose	magnitude	and	distribution	is	empiricallydetermined;	research	helps	to	establish	priorities	among	problems	and	to	identify	targetaudiences.2.	 Then	research	on	etiology	and	incidence	yields	empirically	validated	knowledge	germane	tothose	problems	that	is	incorporated	into	outreach	programs.3.	 The	design	of	those	programs	is	guided	by	research	on	how	people	think	and	what	influencestheir	behavior.4.	 Specific	audiences	are	queried	for	additional	design	guidance.5.	 Research	on	communication	and	diffusion	is	utilized	in	implementing	the	program	design.6.	 Evaluation	research	aids	in	refining	and	improving	the	program.	It	provides	feedback	onaudience	responses,	and	ultimately	assesses	the	program's	diffusion	(e.g.,	audience	natureand	size)	and	impact	(e.g.,	attitude	and	behavior	change).Even	though	this	separation	is	somewhat	artificial,	it	reveals	how	limited	conventional	notions	ofresearch-based	outreach	can	be.	Certainly	the	content	of	outreach	programs	should	be	valid	andup-to-date	and	certainly	programs	should	be	carefully	evaluated,	but	the	contributions	of	researchcan	be	much	greater.In	addition	to	their	grounding	in	social	science,	medical,	and	public	health	research,	the	serialdramas	depended	upon	experts	in	the	arts	and	humanities	as	well.	It	is	too	easy	to	identifyscholarship	with	research,	and	research	with	science.	Outreach	should	draw	on	multipledisciplines,	even	when	their	contribution	is	something	other	than	research.Implications	for	Research	and	OutreachOutreach	so	thoroughly	infused	with	research	is	not	only	better	outreach,	it	also	generates	newknowledge.	Findings	about	attitude	change	from	large-scale	experimental	interventions	often	havegreater	"ecological	validity"	than	those	from	contrived	laboratory	experiments	(Bronfenbrenner,1979).	The	research	that	informed	the	programs	Bandura	described	was	conducted	both	inlaboratories	and	in	natural	settings	and	was	published	in	leading	psychological	journals.	He	did	notdo	one	kind	of	research	as	an	academic	psychologist	and	another	for	application.Everett	Rogers'	role	in	evaluating	the	impact	of	serial	dramas	in	Tanzania	highlights	an	essentialpoint	about	research-based	outreach:	one	researcher	is	not	enough,	even	if	the	researcher	is	AlBandura.	One	discipline's	research	is	not	enough	either.	Outreach	is	inherently	an	interdisciplinaryendeavor.	Like	"big"	science	research,	outreach	is	increasingly	conducted	by	multi-disciplinaryteams.Each	of	the	forms	of	research	that	contributes	to	the	programs	Bandura	described	has	its	ownstandards	of	rigor	and	its	own	peer-reviewed	journals.	Outreach	requires	theoretically	refined	andempirically	validated	research	that	is	conducted	in	a	range	of	settings	using	a	variety	of	theoriesand	methods,	each	appropriate	to	the	issue	at	hand	and	the	relevant	discipline(s).	Linking	researchso	closely	with	outreach	enables	scholars	not	only	to	apply	what	they	have	discovered	but	also	totest	those	discoveries,	advancing	knowledge	in	the	process.	The	effectiveness	of	an	outreachprogram	guided	by	Bandura's	findings	provides	another	level	of	validation	of	those	findings	beyondreplication	in	someone	else's	laboratory.Achieving	such	a	vigorous	hybrid	of	research	and	outreach	is	not	always	possible,	or	evennecessary.	It	serves	as	a	model	that	cannot	always	be	replicated.	Not	every	problem	generates	ormerits	the	amount	of	resources	required	to	mount	a	nation-wide	campaign	to	change	behavior.Moreover,	such	a	campaign	would	be	far	more	challenging	in	the	United	States	and	other	media-soaked	nations.	The	image	of	an	entire	village	sitting	around	a	radio	epitomizes	how	differentthings	are	here.	Reflecting	on	the	six	different	uses	of	research	in	the	work	Bandura	described	andon	the	other	contributions	that	made	the	serial	dramas	effective	can	help	those	engaged	inresearch	and	outreach	to	identify	both	the	strengths	and	the	limitations	of	their	enterprise.	Itshould,	at	the	least,	help	clarify	that	"research-based"	outreach	needs	more	than	one	kind	ofresearch.Bandura	made	a	strong	case	during	his	visit	to	Cornell	that	the	amalgam	of	research	with	outreachthat	he	described	is	essential	to	the	future	of	psychology,	but	the	point	applies	to	other	academicdisciplines	as	well.	Although	thrilling	achievements	in	space	exploration	and	fascinatingdiscoveries	in	elementary	particle	physics	continue	to	drive	public	support	for	research,	taxpayersincreasingly	want	to	know	how	they	can	expect	to	benefit	from	their	investment	in	research.Medicine	and	the	life	sciences	have	answered	that	question	most	compellingly	and	have	flourishedas	a	result.	Social	and	behavioral	scientists	have	been	far	less	successful	at	demonstrating	thevalue	of	their	work	and	building	broad	public	support.	Scholars	in	the	arts	and	humanities	facemuch	higher	hurdles.	Linking	research	and	other	forms	of	scholarship	more	closely	with	outreachwill	not	only	help	solve	important	problems	outside	of	academe	but	also	help	to	renew	andmaintain	the	disciplines.Few	scientists	achieve	Albert	Bandura's	level	of	productivity	and	distinction,	and	few	outreachefforts	are	as	ambitious	and	efficacious	as	the	ones	he	described.	Programs	with	different	contentand	methods	and	scholars	from	different	disciplines	will	all	deviate	substantially	from	this	example.No	single	scholar	can	hope	to	approximate	this	ideal.	Even	large-scale	team	projects	will	usuallyfall	short	in	some	aspects.	But	the	rich	mutual	reinforcement	of	research	and	practice	that	hedescribed	should	inspire	all	of	us	to	link	research	more	tightly	with	outreach	and	to	do	so	atmultiple	points	rather	than	settling	for	research-based	content.ReferencesBandura,	A.	(1986).	The	social	foundations	of	thought	and	action:	A	social	cognitive	theory.Englewood	Cliffs,	NJ:	Prentice-Hall.Bandura,	A.	(2004).	Health	promotion	by	social	cognitive	means.	Health	education	and	behavior,31	(2):	143-164.Bronfenbrenner,	U.	(1979).	The	ecology	of	human	development:	Experiments	by	nature	anddesign.	Cambridge,	MA:	Harvard	University	Press.Dunifon,	R.,	Duttweiler,	M.,	Pillemer,	K.,	Tobias,	D.,	&	Trochim,	W.M.K.	(2004).	Evidence-basedextension.	Journal	of	Extension,	42(2).	Available	at:	http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/a2.shtmlHaskins,	C.	H.	(1923/1957)	The	rise	of	universities.	Ithaca,	NY:	Cornell	University	Press	(originallypublished	by	Henry	Holt	and	Company).Peters,	S.	J.,	Jordan,	N.	R.,	Adamek,	M.,	&	Alter,	T.	R.	(Eds.)	(2005).	Engaging	campus	andcommunity:	The	practice	of	public	scholarship	in	the	state	and	land-grant	university	system.Dayton,	OH:	The	Kettering	Foundation	Press.Rogers,	E.	M.	(2003).	Diffusion	of	innovations,	fifth	edition.	New	York:	Free	Press.Rogers,	E.	M.,	Vaughan,	P.	W.,	Swalehe,	R.	M.	A.,	Rao,	N.,	Svenkerud,	P.,	&	Sood,	S.,	(1999).	Effectsof	an	entertainment-education	radio	soap	opera	for	family	planning	behavior	in	Tanzania.	Studiesin	Family	Planning,	30:	1193-1211.Rosin,	H.	(2006).	Life	lessons:	Annals	of	broadcasting.	The	New	Yorker,	82:	(16,	June	5),	40-45.Copyright	©	by	Extension	Journal,	Inc.	ISSN	1077-5315.	Articles	appearing	in	the	Journal	become	the	property	of	theJournal.	 Single	 copies	 of	 articles	may	 be	 reproduced	 in	 electronic	 or	 print	 form	 for	 use	 in	 educational	 or	 trainingactivities.	Inclusion	of	articles	in	other	publications,	electronic	sources,	or	systematic	large-scale	distribution	may	bedone	only	with	prior	electronic	or	written	permission	of	the	Journal	Editorial	Office,	joe-ed@joe.org.If	you	have	difficulties	viewing	or	printing	this	page,	please	contact	JOE	Technical	Support©	Copyright	by	Extension	Journal,	Inc.	ISSN	1077-5315.	Copyright	Policy

Research-Based Outreach: Albert Bandura\u27s Model

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Research-Based Outreach: Albert Bandura\u27s Model

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