Abstract: Significant amounts of loose biomass are produced annually through agricultural and forestry activities. It is common practice to burn these loose biomass deliberately after harvesting or in accidental veld fires in the case of forestry. This energy could be harnessed for cooking and heating. The challenge with the use of loose biomass lies in its low density and hence low energy content which can be improved through densification. The aim of this paper is to determine the optimum densification parameters that can be used to develop manual briquetting technologies to empower poor communities to harness the energy available in loose biomass that they dispose annually. This forms part of a larger project aimed at developing off grid biomass value chain technologies. Using loose grass and loose leaves, experimental data revealed an optimum density of 1250 kg/m3 and a corresponding densification pressure of 40 MPa. In addition, a comparison of the thermal profile of solid round and round hollow briquettes showed more superior performance of the round hollow briquette based on recorded maximum combustion temperatures. Briquettes with a hole in the middle are therefore preferred to solid briquettes

Kaymakci, Abdullah

Madyira, Daniel M.

English

University of Johannesburg Institutional Repository

Determining Optimum Parameters for Manual Compaction of Loose Biomass  Daniel M. Madyira Department of Mechanical Engineering Science University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa dmadyira@uj.ac.za Abdullah Kaymakci Department of Mechanical Engineering Science University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa abdullahkaymakci@gmail.com  Abstract - Significant amounts of loose biomass are produced annually through agricultural and forestry activities. It is common practice to burn these loose biomass deliberately after harvesting or in accidental veld fires in the case of forestry. This energy could be harnessed for cooking and heating. The challenge with the use of loose biomass lies in its low density and hence low energy content which can be improved through densification. The aim of this paper is to determine the optimum densification parameters that can be used to develop manual briquetting technologies to empower poor communities to harness the energy available in loose biomass that they dispose annually. This forms part of a larger project aimed at developing off grid biomass value chain technologies. Using loose grass and loose leaves, experimental data revealed an optimum density of 1250 kg/m3 and a corresponding densification pressure of 40 MPa. In addition, a comparison of the thermal profile of solid round and round hollow briquettes showed more superior performance of the round hollow briquette based on recorded maximum combustion temperatures. Briquettes with a hole in the middle are therefore preferred to solid briquettes. Keywords— Briquetting, Loose biomass, Manual, Optimum parameters Introduction I. INTRODUCTION Shortage of energy is becoming a major hindrance to the economic development of many countries. South Africa is currently in the middle of a severe energy shortage characterized by almost daily load shedding with severe implications on industrial and mining output [1]. This can lead to job losses and social unrest. In addition, the majority of Sub-Saharan communities (80%) depend on round wood as a source of energy for cooking and heating [2]. Most of this round wood is harvested unsustainably from natural forests leading to deforestation and desertification. Vegetation loss has negative effects on global warming and climate change. This is despite the large amounts of loose biomass that is produced annually through agricultural and forestry activities that can be harvested sustainably as a source of energy. Common such loose biomass sources include maize leaves, stalks and cobs; groundnut leaves, stalks and shells and natural residues including veld grass and tree leaves. The potential for use of biomass, especially loose biomass, as a sustainable energy source remains largely unexploited [3]. The major challenge in harnessing energy from loose biomass is their low energy density. Recent work by Shuma, Madyira, Oosthuizen and Makonese [3] revealed that the calorific values of most loose biomass available in a rural location in the Limpopo Province of South Africa peaked at 20 MJ/kg for ground nut shells and eucalyptus saw dust compared to 40 MJ/kg [4] for common household coal. Other common loose biomass materials such as yellow thatching grass, sugar cane leaves and Mopani tree leaves recorded calorific values of about 17 MJ/kg. One, therefore, requires large volumes of such materials for cooking or heating during which the combustion occurs quickly and in an uncontrollable way. In addition, loose biomass is difficult and expensive to handle or store due to its low density. There is therefore a need to improve the energy density of loose biomass to improve its chance of adoption as a source of energy by communities that are currently relying on round wood for energy. This can be done through densification by compaction to produce biomass briquettes. For low income communities, densification technologies have to be affordable, appropriate and off grid. The success of loose biomass briquetting is affected by many parameters that include nature of material being briquetted, moisture content, process temperature, and pressure [6], [7]. Densification technologies for off-grid may require different parameters to electrical powered systems as they are largely manually operated. Manual systems are also preferable to ensure the overall sustainability and carbon neutrality of the biomass processing value chain. For example solar drying technologies are currently being developed to ensure that the drying process remains off grid and sustainable [8]. There is therefore a need to understand the manual processing parameters that affect the performance of loose biomass briquetting in order to develop effective solutions for off grid rural communities. This work is, therefore, focused on determining the optimum operating parameters that can be implemented in the briquetting of loose biomass using manual processes. If successful, this will lead to utilization of loose biomass as a source thermal energy. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. Aim of the Experiments The aim of the experiments was to determine the variation of biomass density with compaction pressure, the effect of the compaction displacement on density and to compare the thermal profile of solid round briquettes with solid round briquettes with center holes. B. Materials Loose biomass material used for this investigation was composed of loose grass and gum tree leaves. These were dry materials collected in the veld in Johannesburg, South Africa. In general the grass was found to have higher moisture content compared to the leaves. C. Equipment  A special cylindrical mold was developed to compact the loose biomass. The design of the mold allowed monitoring of the overall displacement of during compaction. The mold was made of mild steel with an inside diameter of 100 mm. Provision was made for inclusion of a cylindrical rod inside to create a hollow briquette. This was done by using a separate set of piston and base as shown in Fig 1. The overall length of the mold was 450 mm.  The mold was then mounted onto a standard hydraulic press as shown in Fig. 2. The hydraulic press was a 55 ton heavy duty Carolina Press with a manually operated hydraulic pump as seen on the top right corner in Fig. 2. It had a pressure gauge allowing monitoring of compaction pressure.    (a) (b) Fig. 1: Biomass compaction mold (a) 3D model (b) Dimensions  Fig. 2: 55 ton heavy duty Carolina hydraulic press with biomass compaction mold  Thermal profile during combustion were measured using FLIR infrared thermal imaging camera. D. Procedure  To determine the relationship between density and compaction pressure, equal amounts (by volume) of shredded grass and leaves were mixed and placed in the mold to the upper fill level. The piston was placed in the mold and the initial displacement (compaction) of the biomass recorded. The mold was then placed in on the press and the loaded in increments of 2 tons while recording the pressure and the displacement. This data was used to determine the variation of density with pressure. This was done for both round solid briquettes and round solid briquettes with central holes.  To determine the thermal profile of the various briquettes produced, the briquettes were first dried in the sun and ignited with the aid of a fire lighter. Each was allowed to burn for five minutes, transferred to a cold surface and thermal images taken to study the maximum temperatures and thermal profiles. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Compaction Performance The performance of the compaction process with varying compaction pressure is illustrated in Fig. 3. Fig. 3(a) shows poor bonding of the loose biomass due to low pressure for a briquette with a central hole while Fig. 3(b) shows a well formed round solid briquetted. The shows that elevated pressure results in significant improvement in briquetted formation.   (a) (b) Fig. 3: Compaction progression (a) Low pressure with hole (b) High pressure solid B. Optimum Pressure The variation of density with compaction pressure is shown in Fig. 4.  Fig. 4: Effect of pressure on biomass briquette density  It is clear that the curve initially has a steep slope and then, at around 20 MPa, it begins flattening out. If the trend line is ignored and only the data points are observed, it can be seen that from 25 to 48 MPa none of the data points exceed 1250 kg/m3. This suggests the existence of a limit to the density that can be achieved through compaction of the biomass and this shows that the saturation pressure occurs just above 35 MPa.  Fig. 5 shows the variation of density with displacement. In this case different quantities of biomass were used. This was done to find the effect, is any, of the biomass quantity on the experiments. Thus data points on the left side of Fig. 5 are for lower quantities of biomass. The first point to note is that the final stage of the compaction occurred for about 5 mm of displacement compared to 80 mm for the first stage. Secondly the maximum density does not seem to be significantly affected by the amount of biomass used. Both low and high quantity biomass test reveal an optimum density of 1250 kg/m3.   Fig. 5: Effect of displacement and initial biomass quantity on briquette density C. Thermal Profile The burning behavior of a typical biomass briquette is shown in Fig. 6. In this case a single solid round briquette is shown about two minutes after being ignited in a common domestic braai (barbeque) stand.  Fig. 6: Combustion behavior of typical loose biomass briquette The typical thermal images of the briquettes 5 minutes into the combustion are shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a) shows typical profiles for solid round briquettes while Fig. 7(b) shows the profiles for typical sound hollow briquettes. The temperatures in the figures are the temperatures at the location of the cursor. However, the maximum temperatures for each sample were also recorded. The average maximum temperatures for five samples of the solid round briquette was found to be 210oC while that for the hollow solid briquettes was recorded as 280oC. The presence of a central hole in the hollow round briquette provided additional surface area for combustion. This therefore resulted in higher overall briquette body temperature which facilitated drying and hence produced faster combustion and heat concentration. Moisture removal (drying) is one of the key processes during the combustion of biomass [8]. Therefore, the solid round briquette has lower combustion effectiveness when compared to the hollow round briquette. This help to explain the proliferation of round briquettes for domestic cooking. However, round solid briquettes may burn longer which may be desirable for space heating and other heating applications. Furthermore, round solid briquettes possess higher overall density which saves storage space.    (a)    (b) Fig. 7: Combusting briquette thermal profiles (a) Solid round briquette (b) Hollow round briquette IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this paper, compaction pressure and compaction displacement behavior were investigated for loose briquetting using grass and leaves. In addition, the combustion behavior for solid round and round hollow briquettes were investigated. Base on the obtained results, the following conclusions can be made:  The density of loose biomass composed of equal quantities of leaves and grass depends on pressure  An optimum or saturation density occurs at a pressure of 35 MPa beyond which no further increase in density is observed  The optimum density of loose biomass briquettes composed equal quantities of dray leaves and grass is 1250 kg/m3  Solid round briquette combustions achieved a maximum temperature of 210oC while the hollow round briquette achieved 280oC after five minutes of combustion  The hollow round briquette was found to be the preferred geometry for combustion efficiency  The current work was conducted on two selected loose biomass stock without due consideration of energy content or other properties. The stock used was mainly based on availability. It is recommended that this work be conducted for a range of biomass stock especially that which is available in remote communities such as agricultural waste (maize leaves, rice stalks etc.) to ensure that developed technologies are effective for target communities.  Further work is also required to determine the optimum shape and geometry for effective combustion and energy extraction for such applications as space heating and cooking. Energy balance tests should yield more positive indication of the best geometries for such applications. REFERENCES  [1]  Eskom Holdings SOC Limited, "What is load shedding?," Eskom Holdings SOC Limited, 2015. [Online]. Available: http://loadshedding.eskom.co.za/LoadShedding/Description. [Accessed 25 June 2015]. [2]  K. Masekoameng, T. Simalenga and T. Saidi, "Household Energy Needs and Utilisation Patterns in the Giyani Rural Communities of Limpopo Province, South AFrica," Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 4-5, 2005.  [3]  T. Beringer, W. Lucht and S. Schaphoff, "Bioenergy Production Potential of Global Biomass Plantations Under Environmental and Agricultural Constraints," Bioenergy, vol. 3, pp. 299-312, 2011.  [4]  R. M. Shuma, D. M. Madyira, G. A. Oosthuizen and T. N. Makonese, "Energy Content and Combustion Behaviour of Loose Biomass Available in Limpopo," in International Conference on the Domestic Use of Energy, Cape Town, 2015.  [5]  Coal Marketing International, "Coal Basics," Coal Marketing International, 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.coalmarketinginfo.com/coal-basics/. [Accessed 27 June 2015]. [6]  S. H. Sengar, A. G. Mohod, Y. P. Khandetod, S. S. Patil and A. D. Chendake, "Performance of Briquetting Machine for Briquette Fuel," International Journal of Energy Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 28-34, 2012.  [7]  J. Tumuluru, L. G. Tabil, Y. Song, K. L. Iroba and V. Meda, "Effect of Process Variables on the Quality of Attributes of Briquettes from Wheat, Oat, Canola and Barley," in Asabe Annual International Meeting , 2011.  [8]  D. M. Madyira and N. Tayisepi, "Viability of Monitoring Biomass Solar Drying Using Humidity," in Manufacturing Systems and Operations Management (MPSOM) Proceedings, Victoria Falls, 2015.  [9]  M. T. L. Lekwana, D. M. Madyira, G. A. Oosthuizen and T. N. Makonese, "CFD Evaluation of Premix and Non-premix Models as Suitable Representatives of Fixed Bed Combustor Freeboard," in International Conference on Demestic Use of Energy, Cape Town, 2015.     

Determining optimum parameters for manual compaction of loose biomass

Name not available

Determining Optimum Parameters for Manual 
Compaction of Loose Biomass 
 
Daniel M. Madyira 
Department of Mechanical Engineering Science 
University of Johannesburg 
Johannesburg, South Africa 
dmadyira@uj.ac.za 
Abdullah Kaymakci 
Department of Mechanical Engineering Science 
University of Johannesburg 
Johannesburg, South Africa 
abdullahkaymakci@gmail.com
 
 
Abstract - Significant amounts of loose biomass are produced 
annually through agricultural and forestry activities. It is common 
practice to burn these loose biomass deliberately after harvesting 
or in accidental veld fires in the case of forestry. This energy could 
be harnessed for cooking and heating. The challenge with the use 
of loose biomass lies in its low density and hence low energy 
content which can be improved through densification. The aim of 
this paper is to determine the optimum densification parameters 
that can be used to develop manual briquetting technologies to 
empower poor communities to harness the energy available in 
loose biomass that they dispose annually. This forms part of a 
larger project aimed at developing off grid biomass value chain 
technologies. Using loose grass and loose leaves, experimental data 
revealed an optimum density of 1250 kg/m3 and a corresponding 
densification pressure of 40 MPa. In addition, a comparison of the 
thermal profile of solid round and round hollow briquettes showed 
more superior performance of the round hollow briquette based 
on recorded maximum combustion temperatures. Briquettes with 
a hole in the middle are therefore preferred to solid briquettes. 
Keywords— Briquetting, Loose biomass, Manual, Optimum 
parameters Introduction 
I. INTRODUCTION 
Shortage of energy is becoming a major hindrance to the 
economic development of many countries. South Africa is 
currently in the middle of a severe energy shortage characterized 
by almost daily load shedding with severe implications on 
industrial and mining output [1]. This can lead to job losses and 
social unrest. In addition, the majority of Sub-Saharan 
communities (80%) depend on round wood as a source of energy 
for cooking and heating [2]. Most of this round wood is 
harvested unsustainably from natural forests leading to 
deforestation and desertification. Vegetation loss has negative 
effects on global warming and climate change. This is despite 
the large amounts of loose biomass that is produced annually 
through agricultural and forestry activities that can be harvested 
sustainably as a source of energy. Common such loose biomass 
sources include maize leaves, stalks and cobs; groundnut leaves, 
stalks and shells and natural residues including veld grass and 
tree leaves. The potential for use of biomass, especially loose 
biomass, as a sustainable energy source remains largely 
unexploited [3]. 
The major challenge in harnessing energy from loose 
biomass is their low energy density. Recent work by Shuma, 
Madyira, Oosthuizen and Makonese [3] revealed that the 
calorific values of most loose biomass available in a rural 
location in the Limpopo Province of South Africa peaked at 20 
MJ/kg for ground nut shells and eucalyptus saw dust compared 
to 40 MJ/kg [4] for common household coal. Other common 
loose biomass materials such as yellow thatching grass, sugar 
cane leaves and Mopani tree leaves recorded calorific values of 
about 17 MJ/kg. One, therefore, requires large volumes of such 
materials for cooking or heating during which the combustion 
occurs quickly and in an uncontrollable way. In addition, loose 
biomass is difficult and expensive to handle or store due to its 
low density. There is therefore a need to improve the energy 
density of loose biomass to improve its chance of adoption as a 
source of energy by communities that are currently relying on 
round wood for energy. This can be done through densification 
by compaction to produce biomass briquettes. For low income 
communities, densification technologies have to be affordable, 
appropriate and off grid. 
The success of loose biomass briquetting is affected by many 
parameters that include nature of material being briquetted, 
moisture content, process temperature, and pressure [6], [7]. 
Densification technologies for off-grid may require different 
parameters to electrical powered systems as they are largely 
manually operated. Manual systems are also preferable to ensure 
the overall sustainability and carbon neutrality of the biomass 
processing value chain. For example solar drying technologies 
are currently being developed to ensure that the drying process 
remains off grid and sustainable [8]. There is therefore a need to 
understand the manual processing parameters that affect the 
performance of loose biomass briquetting in order to develop 
effective solutions for off grid rural communities. 
This work is, therefore, focused on determining the optimum 
operating parameters that can be implemented in the briquetting 
of loose biomass using manual processes. If successful, this will 
lead to utilization of loose biomass as a source thermal energy. 
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
A. Aim of the Experiments 
The aim of the experiments was to determine the variation of 
biomass density with compaction pressure, the effect of the 
compaction displacement on density and to compare the thermal 
profile of solid round briquettes with solid round briquettes with 
center holes. 
B. Materials 
Loose biomass material used for this investigation was 
composed of loose grass and gum tree leaves. These were dry 
materials collected in the veld in Johannesburg, South Africa. In 
general the grass was found to have higher moisture content 
compared to the leaves. 
C. Equipment 
 A special cylindrical mold was developed to compact the 
loose biomass. The design of the mold allowed monitoring of 
the overall displacement of during compaction. The mold was 
made of mild steel with an inside diameter of 100 mm. Provision 
was made for inclusion of a cylindrical rod inside to create a 
hollow briquette. This was done by using a separate set of piston 
and base as shown in Fig 1. The overall length of the mold was 
450 mm. 
 The mold was then mounted onto a standard hydraulic press 
as shown in Fig. 2. The hydraulic press was a 55 ton heavy duty 
Carolina Press with a manually operated hydraulic pump as seen 
on the top right corner in Fig. 2. It had a pressure gauge allowing 
monitoring of compaction pressure.  
  
(a) (b) 
Fig. 1: Biomass compaction mold (a) 3D model (b) Dimensions 
 
Fig. 2: 55 ton heavy duty Carolina hydraulic press with biomass compaction 
mold 
 Thermal profile during combustion were measured using 
FLIR infrared thermal imaging camera. 
D. Procedure 
 To determine the relationship between density and 
compaction pressure, equal amounts (by volume) of shredded 
grass and leaves were mixed and placed in the mold to the upper 
fill level. The piston was placed in the mold and the initial 
displacement (compaction) of the biomass recorded. The mold 
was then placed in on the press and the loaded in increments of 
2 tons while recording the pressure and the displacement. This 
data was used to determine the variation of density with 
pressure. This was done for both round solid briquettes and 
round solid briquettes with central holes. 
 To determine the thermal profile of the various briquettes 
produced, the briquettes were first dried in the sun and ignited 
with the aid of a fire lighter. Each was allowed to burn for five 
minutes, transferred to a cold surface and thermal images taken 
to study the maximum temperatures and thermal profiles. 
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
A. Compaction Performance 
The performance of the compaction process with varying 
compaction pressure is illustrated in Fig. 3. Fig. 3(a) shows poor 
bonding of the loose biomass due to low pressure for a briquette 
with a central hole while Fig. 3(b) shows a well formed round 
solid briquetted. The shows that elevated pressure results in 
significant improvement in briquetted formation. 
  
(a) (b) 
Fig. 3: Compaction progression (a) Low pressure with hole (b) High pressure 
solid 
B. Optimum Pressure 
The variation of density with compaction pressure is shown 
in Fig. 4. 
 
Fig. 4: Effect of pressure on biomass briquette density 
 It is clear that the curve initially has a steep slope and then, 
at around 20 MPa, it begins flattening out. If the trend line is 
ignored and only the data points are observed, it can be seen that 
from 25 to 48 MPa none of the data points exceed 1250 kg/m3. 
This suggests the existence of a limit to the density that can be 
achieved through compaction of the biomass and this shows that 
the saturation pressure occurs just above 35 MPa. 
 Fig. 5 shows the variation of density with displacement. In 
this case different quantities of biomass were used. This was 
done to find the effect, is any, of the biomass quantity on the 
experiments. Thus data points on the left side of Fig. 5 are for 
lower quantities of biomass. The first point to note is that the 
final stage of the compaction occurred for about 5 mm of 
displacement compared to 80 mm for the first stage. Secondly 
the maximum density does not seem to be significantly affected 
by the amount of biomass used. Both low and high quantity 
biomass test reveal an optimum density of 1250 kg/m3. 
 
 
Fig. 5: Effect of displacement and initial biomass quantity on briquette density 
C. Thermal Profile 
The burning behavior of a typical biomass briquette is shown 
in Fig. 6. In this case a single solid round briquette is shown 
about two minutes after being ignited in a common domestic 
braai (barbeque) stand. 
 
Fig. 6: Combustion behavior of typical loose biomass briquette 
The typical thermal images of the briquettes 5 minutes into 
the combustion are shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a) shows typical 
profiles for solid round briquettes while Fig. 7(b) shows the 
profiles for typical sound hollow briquettes. The temperatures in 
the figures are the temperatures at the location of the cursor. 
However, the maximum temperatures for each sample were also 
recorded. The average maximum temperatures for five samples 
of the solid round briquette was found to be 210oC while that for 
the hollow solid briquettes was recorded as 280oC. The presence 
of a central hole in the hollow round briquette provided 
additional surface area for combustion. This therefore resulted 
in higher overall briquette body temperature which facilitated 
drying and hence produced faster combustion and heat 
concentration. Moisture removal (drying) is one of the key 
processes during the combustion of biomass [8]. Therefore, the 
solid round briquette has lower combustion effectiveness when 
compared to the hollow round briquette. This help to explain the 
proliferation of round briquettes for domestic cooking. 
However, round solid briquettes may burn longer which may be 
desirable for space heating and other heating applications. 
Furthermore, round solid briquettes possess higher overall 
density which saves storage space. 
   
(a) 
   
(b) 
Fig. 7: Combusting briquette thermal profiles (a) Solid round briquette (b) 
Hollow round briquette 
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
In this paper, compaction pressure and compaction 
displacement behavior were investigated for loose briquetting 
using grass and leaves. In addition, the combustion behavior for 
solid round and round hollow briquettes were investigated. Base 
on the obtained results, the following conclusions can be made: 
 The density of loose biomass composed of equal 
quantities of leaves and grass depends on pressure 
 An optimum or saturation density occurs at a pressure 
of 35 MPa beyond which no further increase in density 
is observed 
 The optimum density of loose biomass briquettes 
composed equal quantities of dray leaves and grass is 
1250 kg/m3 
 Solid round briquette combustions achieved a 
maximum temperature of 210oC while the hollow 
round briquette achieved 280oC after five minutes of 
combustion 
 The hollow round briquette was found to be the 
preferred geometry for combustion efficiency 
 The current work was conducted on two selected loose 
biomass stock without due consideration of energy content or 
other properties. The stock used was mainly based on 
availability. It is recommended that this work be conducted for 
a range of biomass stock especially that which is available in 
remote communities such as agricultural waste (maize leaves, 
rice stalks etc.) to ensure that developed technologies are 
effective for target communities. 
 Further work is also required to determine the optimum 
shape and geometry for effective combustion and energy 
extraction for such applications as space heating and cooking. 
Energy balance tests should yield more positive indication of the 
best geometries for such applications. 
REFERENCES 
 
[1]  Eskom Holdings SOC Limited, "What is load shedding?," Eskom 
Holdings SOC Limited, 2015. [Online]. Available: 
http://loadshedding.eskom.co.za/LoadShedding/Description. [Accessed 
25 June 2015]. 
[2]  K. Masekoameng, T. Simalenga and T. Saidi, "Household Energy Needs 
and Utilisation Patterns in the Giyani Rural Communities of Limpopo 
Province, South AFrica," Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, vol. 16, 
no. 3, pp. 4-5, 2005.  
[3]  T. Beringer, W. Lucht and S. Schaphoff, "Bioenergy Production Potential 
of Global Biomass Plantations Under Environmental and Agricultural 
Constraints," Bioenergy, vol. 3, pp. 299-312, 2011.  
[4]  R. M. Shuma, D. M. Madyira, G. A. Oosthuizen and T. N. Makonese, 
"Energy Content and Combustion Behaviour of Loose Biomass Available 
in Limpopo," in International Conference on the Domestic Use of Energy, 
Cape Town, 2015.  
[5]  Coal Marketing International, "Coal Basics," Coal Marketing 
International, 2012. [Online]. Available: 
http://www.coalmarketinginfo.com/coal-basics/. [Accessed 27 June 
2015]. 
[6]  S. H. Sengar, A. G. Mohod, Y. P. Khandetod, S. S. Patil and A. D. 
Chendake, "Performance of Briquetting Machine for Briquette Fuel," 
International Journal of Energy Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 28-34, 
2012.  
[7]  J. Tumuluru, L. G. Tabil, Y. Song, K. L. Iroba and V. Meda, "Effect of 
Process Variables on the Quality of Attributes of Briquettes from Wheat, 
Oat, Canola and Barley," in Asabe Annual International Meeting , 2011.  
[8]  D. M. Madyira and N. Tayisepi, "Viability of Monitoring Biomass Solar 
Drying Using Humidity," in Manufacturing Systems and Operations 
Management (MPSOM) Proceedings, Victoria Falls, 2015.  
[9]  M. T. L. Lekwana, D. M. Madyira, G. A. Oosthuizen and T. N. Makonese, 
"CFD Evaluation of Premix and Non-premix Models as Suitable 
Representatives of Fixed Bed Combustor Freeboard," in International 
Conference on Demestic Use of Energy, Cape Town, 2015.  
 
 
 


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Determining optimum parameters for manual compaction of loose biomass

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