Author Institution: Department of Zoology, Capital Universit

Geist, Robert M.

The Ohio Journal of Science

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NOTES ON THE INFESTATION OF WILD BIRDSBY MALLOPHAGA1ROBERT M. GEIST,Department of Zoology, Capital UniversityDuring the past five years while collecting birds for variousscientific purposes, such as museum skins and mounts andparasite studies, records were kept on the infestation of thesebirds by Mallophaga. The birds were collected from variouslocalities in Ohio, with the bulk of them taken at BuckeyeLake and in central Ohio, by the writer and others. For theopportunity to examine birds taken by other collectors I amindebted to Mr. Milton B. Trautman, formerly of the OhioDivision of Conservation, and to Mr. Charles F. Walker, ofthe Ohio State Museum. I thank Mr. Edward S. Thomas,of the Ohio State Museum, Mr. Milton B. Trautman, and Mr.Harold S. Peters, of the Bureau of Entomology, for theircritical reading of this paper.In this work a bird was considered to be infested withMallophagan parasites if any stage in the life cycle of theinsect was found on the bird. To date a total of 1,025 birdshave been examined. JNine of the 19 orders of birds are represented by these1,025 individuals, of which the Passeriformes include morethan half the total number. The nine orders are: Ciconiif ormes,Anseriformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Charad-riiformes, Cuculiformes, Piciformes and Passeriformes. Table Igives the orders together with the individuals examined and thenumber infested.The total infestation of the first eight orders was 178 birdsout of 315 examined, or 56.5 per cent. The number of birdsfrom each of these orders was admittedly too small to drawa definite conclusion. However, since these specimens werecollected from many localities in Ohio during a five-year period,it would seem that a general idea of the amount of infestationmight nevertheless be obtained.1 Contribution Number 3, new series, from the Department of Zoology, CapitalUniversity, Columbus, Ohio.9394 ROBERT M. GEIST Vol. XXXVIt has been frequently stated that aquatic birds are moreoften parasitized than land birds, due to the more humidenvironment of these groups. If the following orders areconsidered to include aquatic birds, Ciconiiformes, Anseriformes,Gruiformes, and Charadriiformes, out of 97 examined, 56individuals were found to be parasitized, or 57.7 per cent.If this is compared with the infestation of the entire first eightorders there is a difference of only 1.2 per cent in favor of theaquatic birds.If we may consider the Falconiformes and Galliformes aslarge land birds, and compute the per cent of infestation inTABLE IOrderCiconiiformesAnseriformesFalconiformesGalliformesGruiformesCharadriiformesCuculif ormesPiciformesPasseriformes .TotalIndividualsExamined921181535624437101,025IndividualsParasitized416999531212292470Per Cent ofInfestation44.476.150.064.7100.. 050.050.027.941.1Average 56.0these groups, it is found that of 171 birds examined 108 wereparasitized, or 63.1 per cent. This is 5.4 per cent more thanin the aquatic group. Thus it would seem that the humidityfactor is not as important as generally considered. Taking theCuculif ormes, Piciformes and Passerif ormes as small landbirds, from 757 of these, 306 were parasitized giving a per-centage of 40.4. These figures show that in this case at least,the large land birds are more heavily parasitized than theother groups.Another statement that has been commonly made in theliterature is that gregarious birds are more often parasitizedthan non-gregarious birds. Of the orders represented, theCiconiiformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes and Charadriiformesare the only ones which may be definitely considered gregarious.Combining these groups, of 245 birds examined 150 wereparasitized, or 61.2 per cent. Considering the others non-No. 2 MALLOPHAGA INFESTATION 95gregarious, 320 of 780 birds were parasitized, 41 per cent.These results tend to show that the gregarious habit is probablyan important factor in the transmission of Mallophaga fromhost to host.About 137 species of Passerines are found commonly inOhio. Of this number, 710 individuals of 120 species, havebeen examined. In the Passeriformes the Hirundinidae, Cor-vidae, Laniidae, Sturnidae, Vireonidae and Icteridae show theheaviest infestation. Of these the Laniidae and Vireonidaeare not gregarious. Computing the amount of parasitism inTABLE IIFamilyTyrannidae...Alaudidae.CorvidaeSturnidaeIcteridaeFringillidae...Tangaridae...Hirundinidae.BombycillidaeLaniidaeVireonidae..,.Mniotiltidae..Motacillidae..MimidaeTroglodytidaeCerthiidaeSittidaeParidaeSylviidaeTuridae ,IndividualsExamined34251676203105615104161151101585131419IndividualsInfested931065903918138300660014Per CentInfestation26.512.062.585.544.337.116.653.310.075.050.026.0none60.040.0nonenone7.628.542.1the gregarious families, of 310 birds 173 were parasitized, or56 per cent. Now computing the infestation of those familiesmost often parasitized, but not gregarious: 19 birds, 10 infested,or 52.5 per cent. Results here again show that the gregarioushabit tends to increase the infestation. Table II shows thenumbers by families in the order Passeriformes.From the data obtained in this study it would seem that theparasite life cycle extends over the entire year, since eggs andlice, or, eggs or lice, may be found on the same bird speciesduring the entire year and is thus not seasonal. The birdsexamined during the winter months had few or no adults and96 ROBERT M. GEIST Vol. X X X Vnymphs and usually many eggs, while the same species examinedin early spring were found to have eggs and nymphs. In latespring and early summer the adults were numerous as were thenymphs and eggs, while in late summer and early fall the adultsdecrease in number and the eggs increase in abundance. Itseems likely that the parasite cycle should be continuousthroughout the year due to the comparative changelessness ofthe insect's environment. If, however, the weather was verycold the number of adults found on the birds was smaller.Probably in very cold weather even though the temperatureof the bird remains practically the same the adult insectscannot live while the eggs carry the species over.In as much as Mallophaga are seldom found living off thebodies of their hosts, the dispersal of the various species mustdepend upon bodily contact among the individual birds.However, the opportunities for bodily contact are not numerous.They are probably limited to roosting, nesting, copulation andfrom prey to predator.There are a few records in the literature where Mallophagahave been found on birds of prey which undoubtedly came fromthe prey unless straggling occurred. It is believed this rarelyoccurs and no such cases were found in any of this work.In the case of copulation the opportunity for transmissionis relatively short and it is questionable whether many parasitesare thus transferred. Also in birds that mate for only onenesting season during a year the transmission in this mannerwould be slight.The * opportunity for transmission in roosting is greater.Migration of lice from one host to another probably takes place,for undoubtedly there is often contact of the bodies of thevarious individuals. Kellogg states that he has found pelicans,cormorants and gulls roosting together on the "bird rocks" offMonterey, California, and that he has taken Esthiopterumtoxocerum Nitz., a parasite of the cormorants, on the pelicans,as well as on the cormorants. But even on these ocean rocks,after frightening away hundreds of these birds he has looked invain for Mallophaga that might be wandering from host to host.Perhaps the greatest opportunity for transmission is fromadult bird to young during feeding and brooding. Particularlyduring brooding the time of bodily contact is longest and theopportunity for the lice to find new feeding grounds is greatest.No. 2 MALLOPHAGA INFESTATION 97It might be expected then that birds reared by foster parentswould have the parasites of these parents. The cowbird{Molothrus ater ater) would furnish a case of this kind.Since cowbirds are parasitic on about one hundred speciesof Passerine birds, it might be expected that Mallophaga ofthe cowbird's hosts would be found on cowbirds. In all .theliterature, prior to 1930, there is but one record of a lousetaken from a cowbird, and that is Kellogg's record of Philopterustranspositus (Kell.) taken in Kansas in 1896. This species isa member of Piaget's group forficulati, which had up to thattime been found only on the Psittacinae. This group of insectshas a forcipated clypeal front. Kellogg's species has neverbeen taken since to my knowledge.One hundred fifty-five cowbirds have been examined; 71 or45.8 per cent of which were infested with Mallophaga. Adultlice were found on 42 of these 71. The following five species ofMallophaga were taken:1. Menacanthus persignatus (Kell.). Type host, Californiajay. This species has been taken from six American Passerinesof which three are hosts of the cowbird.2. Myrsidea incerta (Kell.). Type hosts, Goldfinch andrusset-backed thrush. This species has been taken from ninePasserines, seven of which are hosts of the cowbird.3. Philopterus subflavescens (Geoff.). Type host, Europeanwhite wagtail. Also taken from some 80 Passerines, 70 ofwhich are cowbird hosts.4. Degeeriella illustris (Kell.). Type host, Red-wingedblackbird. This species has been taken from six Passerines, ofwhich five are cowbird hosts.5. Machaerilaemus laticorpus Carr. Type host, a SouthAmerican vireo It has also been taken from two Passerines,both of which are hosts of the cowbird.Of these five species, Philopterus subflavescens and Degeeriellaillustris were taken the most often. From the above records itseems that the parasites of the cowbirds fall into three generalgroups: (1) parasites that are found only on Icterid hosts;(2) parasites that lack host specificity and are found on manyPasserines; (3) others that do not regularly parasitize cowbirds.The first two groups rank approximately equal in numbers, thethird group being much the smallest.Bagnail (1931) made a similar study on the Mallophagaof the European cuckoo which is also parasitic. He found98 ROBERT M. GEIST Vol. X X X Vthese parasites to be distinctly peculiar to the cuckoo and notto the various hosts of the cuckoo.Some experiments in temperature response were performedon Degeeriella vulgata (Kell.) taken from an English sparrow.Ten adult lice of this species were kept in the laboratory onEnglish sparrow feathers at a temperature of 38 degrees C.for ten days. The average temperature of the host of thislouse is approximately 42 degrees C. Another group of 15parasites of the same species was subjected to a temperature of48 degrees C. This latter group showed marked irritationand all died within a few hours, while the controls lived 12 daysat a temperature of 38 degrees C.In collecting some of the birds in this work their temperatureswere taken immediately after being killed. This was done bymeans of a special clinical thermometer which was thrustdown the throat of the bird into the proventriculus. It is wellknown that the temperature of a bird varies four or five ormore degrees between periods of rest and those of activity.Kendeigh and Baldwin in a study of nestling house wrens foundthe body temperature of these birds to vary as much as 8degrees P. Simpson and Galbraith found the daily variationin temperature to be greater in birds of small size than in thoseof large size. Wetmore made a study of the temperatures ofbirds using the same methods as outlined above.Wetmore's data on temperatures were used to check theamount of variation among the birds parasitized by certainspecies of Mallophaga. In this study Philopterus subflavescens(Geoff.) was taken from 30 different species of birds. Theaverage temperatures of these hosts vary from 107 degrees F.to 110.2 degrees F., a difference of 3.2 degrees. Similarly thetemperatures of the birds parasitized by Degeeriella vulgata(Kell.) vary from 106.9 degrees F. to 110.2 degrees, a differenceof 3.3 degrees. The temperatures of the Anserine hosts of thethree common duck infesting Mallophaga, Trinoton quer-quedulae Linn., Anatoecus dentatus (Scop.), and Esthiopterumcrassicorne (Scop.) vary from 105.8 degrees to 107.9 degrees, adifference of 2.1 degrees. The difference in any of these cases isnot more than 3.3 degrees, while other studies show variationsin bird temperatures of as high as eight degrees, depending onrest and activity.The average temperature of the cowbird is 108.2 degrees F.If this temperature is compared with the temperatures of theNo. 2 MALLOPHAGA INFESTATION 99hosts of the four principal parasite species mentioned abovevery little difference is found. The temperatures of the hostsof Menacanthus persignatus vary from 107.6° to 109.7°; thoseof Myrsidea incerta from 107.9° to 109.3°; those of Degeeriellaillustris from 107° to 109.6°; those of Philopterus subflavescenswere given above. These temperatures vary only 1.5° eitherway from that of the cowbird.TABLE IIIMenoponColpocephalumMenacanthusMyrsideaMachaerilaemusEureumRicinusPhilopterusDegeeriellaTyrannidaeXXXXAlaudidaeXXCorvidaeXXXXXSturnidaeXXIcteridaeXXXXXXXFringillidaeXXXXXXXXTangaridaeXHirundinidaeXXXXBombycillidaeXXXLaniidaeXXVireonidaeXXMniotiltidaeXXXXXMontacillidaeMimidaeXXXXXTroglodytidaeXXXXCerthiidaeXSittidaeParidaeXXSylviidaeXXTuridaeXXXXXXTemperature may be a factor in determining host specificityfor parasitic species, but the data so far accumulated is insuffi-cient to draw any conclusions. Furthermore, by moving inclose to the body of the host or out to the surface of the feathers,the parasite might make a suitable response to a variation inthe host's temperature. It is probable then that temperaturemay be a relatively unimportant factor in host specificity.Since more than half the birds examined in this studybelong to the order Passeriformes, it is of interest to note thedistribution of the parasite genera on the various bird families.Of the four Mallophagan families infesting wild birds all arefound on the Passerines except Laemobothriidae. Of theMenoponidae the genera Menopon, Colpocephalum, Myrsidea,Eureum, Machaerilaemus and Menacanthus are found on this100 ROBERT M. GEIST Vol. X X X Vbird order. Of the Ricinidae only the genus Ricinus is rep-resented. The genera Philppterus and Degeeriella of thePhilopteridae are found on the Passerines.The genus Philopterus is present on 16 of the 20 families.On one of the remaining four families, the Sittidae, therewere no lice taken. This genus includes more species thanany other genus of the family. Degeeriella was found on 13of the 20 families.In the family Ricinidae the single genus Ricinus is found onbut eight of the 20 families and of these eight it is found chieflyon the Turdidae and Fringillidae.In the family Menoponidae, Menopon is found on seven ofthe bird families; Colpocephalum on three; Menacanthus on five;Myrsidea on nine; Eureum on two; and Machaerilaemus ontwo. Table III shows this relationship in graphical form.LITERATURE CITED-Bagnall, R. S. Some Problems connected with the Cuckoo and its Ectoparasites.Scottish Naturalist, No. 191, Sept.-Oct., 1931, pp. 145.Barber, B. A. Notes on the Life History and Habits of Mallophaga. Pap. Mich.Acad. Sci., Vol. I, pp. 391. 1923.Geist, R. M. Additional Mallophaga from Ohio Birds. Ohio Jour. Sci., Vol. 29,pp. 505. 1931.Kellogg, V. L. New Mallophaga. II. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., VI, pp. 431, 1896.Kendeigh and Baldwin. Development of Temperature Control in Nestling HouseWrens. Amer. Nat., Vol. LXII, pp. 249. 1928.Peters, H. S. Mallophaga from Ohio Birds. Ohio Jour. Sci., Vol. 28, pp. 215.1928.Piaget, E. Les Pediculines. Essai Monographique. Leydon, 1880.Simpson and Galbraith. An Investigation into the Diurnal Variation of the BodyTemperature of Nocturnal and Other Birds, and a few Mammals. Jour.Phys., Vol. XXXIII, pp. 225, 1905.Wetmore, A. A Study of the Body Temperature of Birds. Smithsonian Misc.Coll., Vol. 72, No. 12, 1921.Blood Will TellThe newer knowledge of the blood groups has developed so rapidly in thepast few years that an up-to-date revision of this subject becomes essential. Dr.Wiener has supplied this need in his volume dealing with the blood groups andblood transfusion. All the practical applications of the groups are fully discussed:transfusion, clinical medicine, forensic medicine and anthropology. The M-Nreactions are fully explained and their legal applications illustrated with casehistories. The heredity of the M and N agglutinogens, as well as the older A andB antigens, is fully elaborated. The book is well illustrated with photographsand diagrams. Physicians, lawyers, biologists and anthropologists will find itessential to have this book on their shelves.—L. H. S.Blood Groups and Blood Transfusion, by Alexander S. Wiener, M. D.xiv+220 pp. Springfield, 111., Charles C. Thomas, 1935.

Notes on the Infestation of Wild Birds by Mallophaga

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Notes on the Infestation of Wild Birds by Mallophaga

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