Detailed aerosol measurements in time and space are crucial to address open questions in climate research. Earth observation is a key instrument for that matter but it is biased by large uncertainties. Using airborne imaging spectroscopy, such as ESA's upcoming airborne Earth observing instrument APEX, allows determining the widely used aerosol optical depth (AOD) with unprecedented accuracy

thanks to its high spatial and spectral resolution, optimal calibration and high signal-to-noise ratios (SNR).

This study was carried out within the overall aim of developing such a tropospheric aerosol retrieval

algorithm. Basic and efficient radiative transfer equations were applied to determine the sensor performance

requirement and a sensitivity analysis in context of the aerosol retrieval. The AOD retrieval sensitivity requirement was chosen according to the demands of atmospheric correction processes. Therefore, a novel parameterization of the diffuse path-radiance was developed to simulate the atmospheric and surface effects on the signal at the sensor level. It was found for typical remote sensing conditions and a surface albedo of less than 30% that a SNR of circa 300 is sufficient to meet the AOD retrieval sensitivity requirement at 550nm. A surface albedo

around 50% requires much more SNR, which makes the AOD retrieval very difficult. The retrieval performance is further analyzed throughout the visual spectral range for a changing solar geometry and different aerosol characteristics. As expected, the blue spectral region above dark surfaces and high aerosol loadings will provide the most accurate retrieval results. In general, the AOD

retrieval feasibility could be proven for the analyzed cases for APEX under realistic simulated conditions

Itten, K I

Schläpfer, D

Seidel, F

ZORA

University of ZurichZurich Open Repository and ArchiveWinterthurerstr. 190CH-8057 Zurichhttp://www.zora.uzh.chYear: 2009Efficient radiative transfer calculation and sensor performancerequirements for the aerosol retrieval by airborne imagingspectroscopySeidel, F; Schläpfer, D; Itten, K ISeidel, F; Schläpfer, D; Itten, K I (2009). Efficient radiative transfer calculation and sensor performancerequirements for the aerosol retrieval by airborne imaging spectroscopy. In: 6th EARSeL Imaging SpectroscopySIG workshop: proceedings , Tel Aviv, Israel, 16 March 2009 - 19 March 2009, online.Postprint available at:http://www.zora.uzh.chPosted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich.http://www.zora.uzh.chOriginally published at:6th EARSeL Imaging Spectroscopy SIG workshop: proceedings , Tel Aviv, Israel, 16 March 2009 - 19 March2009, online.Seidel, F; Schläpfer, D; Itten, K I (2009). Efficient radiative transfer calculation and sensor performancerequirements for the aerosol retrieval by airborne imaging spectroscopy. In: 6th EARSeL Imaging SpectroscopySIG workshop: proceedings , Tel Aviv, Israel, 16 March 2009 - 19 March 2009, online.Postprint available at:http://www.zora.uzh.chPosted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich.http://www.zora.uzh.chOriginally published at:6th EARSeL Imaging Spectroscopy SIG workshop: proceedings , Tel Aviv, Israel, 16 March 2009 - 19 March2009, online.  EFFICIENT RADIATIVE TRANSFER CALCULATION AND  SENSOR PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AEROSOL RETRIEVAL  BY AIRBORNE IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY   F. Seidel1*, D. Schläpfer2 and K. Itten1 1Remote Sensing Laboratories, University of Zurich, Winterhurerstrasse 190, CH-8057, Zürich, Switzerland - felix.seidel@geo.uzh.ch 2ReSe Applications Schläpfer, Langeggweg 3, CH-9500 Wil, Switzerland - daniel@rese.ch    KEY WORDS:  radiative transfer, aerosol retrieval, reflectance, albedo, remote sensing, APEX, SNR, diffuse path-radiance   ABSTRACT:  Detailed aerosol measurements in time and space are crucial to address open questions in climate research. Earth observation is a key instrument for that matter but it is biased by large uncertainties. Using airborne imaging spectroscopy, such as ESA's upcoming airborne Earth observing instrument APEX, allows determining the widely used aerosol optical depth (AOD) with unprecedented accu-racy thanks to its high spatial and spectral resolution, optimal calibration and high signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). This study was carried out within the overall aim of developing such a tropospheric aerosol retrieval algorithm. Basic and efficient radiative transfer equations were applied to determine the sensor per-formance requirement and a sensitivity analysis in context of the aerosol retrieval. The AOD re-trieval sensitivity requirement was chosen according to the demands of atmospheric correction processes. Therefore, a novel parameterization of the diffuse path-radiance was developed to simu-late the atmospheric and surface effects on the signal at the sensor level. It was found for typical remote sensing conditions and a surface albedo of less than 30% that a SNR of circa 300 is sufficient to meet the AOD retrieval sensitivity requirement at 550nm. A surface al-bedo around 50% requires much more SNR, which makes the AOD retrieval very difficult. The re-trieval performance is further analyzed throughout the visual spectral range for a changing solar ge-ometry and different aerosol characteristics. As expected, the blue spectral region above dark sur-faces and high aerosol loadings will provide the most accurate retrieval results. In general, the AOD retrieval feasibility could be proven for the analyzed cases for APEX under realistic simulated con-ditions.                                                  * Corresponding author.   1. INTRODUCTION  The simulation of the light propagation through the atmosphere is a very important prerequisite for the scientific and quantitative use of remote sensing data. Radiative transfer models, such as MODTRAN (Berk et al. 1989) or 6S (Vermote et al. 1997), are often used therefore. They allow calculating the ap-parent signal at the sensor level with all its components of atmospheric extinction and sur-face interactions. Unfortunately, these models are rather complex and involve the risk of un-detected operating errors. Furthermore, they are not optimized for aerosol remote sensing and are in need of intensive computational time. The use of look-up-tables (LUT) helps to circumvent these problems, but it is inflexible and depends on the LUT’s limitations.  This paper introduces the Simple Model for Atmospheric Radiative Transfer (SMART). It is based on streamlined radiative equations and parameterizations, and yet accurate enough for most needs in aerosol remote sensing. In other words, it is a trade-off between performance, versatility, operator convenience and accuracy.   2. RADIATIVE TRANSFER  A simplified derivative of the radiative transfer equation (RTE) (Chandrasekhar 1960) pro-vides a reasonably general and nevertheless powerful approximate of the interaction of light with particulate media (Kokhanovsky 2008). The use of the so-called single-scattering approximation (SSA) isolates the very complex problem of multiple scattering. A parameterization of the discrete ordinate ra-diative transfer code DISORT (Stamnes et al. 1988) is used to estimate the latter. A further help provides the breakdown into a part, which is either purely influenced by the atmosphere or by the surface.  2.1 SMART  SMART simplifies the atmosphere by two-layers (Fig. 1). It is assumed, that all aerosols are trapped within the lower layer, the so-called planetary boundary layer (PBL) or mixed layer.    Figure 1: SMART atmosphere. The sensor (S) is situated between the PBL and the  free atmosphere.  The resulting value from SMART is the ap-parent reflectance at the airborne sensor level (RS):   (1)  where T1 denotes the transmittance between top-of-atmosphere and the sensor level, R2  the reflectance function of the PBL and Rsfc the reflectance function of the surface contribu-tion. The subscript λ refers to the spectral de-pendence. T1 comprises a direct and a diffuse component:   (2).  The calculation of R2 makes use of the SSA and the correction factor fcorr in order to con-sider for higher orders of scattering:   (3)  The PBL reflectance with the SSA can be writ-ten as (Kokhanovsky 2004):  (4)    where τ is the total optical depth (molecules and aerosols), µ0 is the cosine of the solar and µ the cosine of the sensor zenith angle, ω0 is the single scattering albedo and P(Θ) is the phase-function.  The remaining multiple scattering is consid-ered by the use of a third order polynomial parameterization of the ratio between the MODTRAN total atmospheric reflectance and the result of Eq. (4) as follows:  (5)  The remaining Rsfc is calculated by:   (6)  where ρsfc denotes the albedo or bihemispheri-cal reflectance of the surface, T is the total transmittance (Kokhanovsky et al. 2005) and s is the spherical albedo.  The altitude of the aircraft can be adjusted via the air pressure at the surface, respectively at the sensor.   The values of the main input variables for SMART, which were used for this paper, are given in Tab. 1.  solar zenith angle 40° aerosol model average rural sensor zenith angle nadir air pressure at sur-face level  1013 mbar  (sea level) air pressure at sensor level 506 mbar  (5500 m above sea level)  Table 1. Radiative transfer variables used for this paper.  2.2 Aerosol retrieval  The principle of the AOD retrieval by inver-sion of SMART is shown in Fig. 2. A meas-ured reflectance at the sensor level (red curve) is compared to the result of Eq. (1). In this ex-ample, an AOD of 0.4 in SMART reproduces the measured signal and is therefore assumed to be the correct AOD value.    Figure 2: SMART inversion to determine  the AOD.  2.3 Accuracy assessment of SMART  A comparison of SMART against MODTRAN4 was performed to assess its ac-curacy. The atmosphere and the aerosol model were adjusted in MODTRAN4 to represent the same two-layer scenario and the average rural aerosol model (d'Almeida et al. 1991) as it is currently used in SMART. A black surface was assumed to focus on the pure atmospheric influence. Fig. 3 shows the direct comparison between RS from MODTRAN4 (rainbow-colored surface) and from SMART (yellow surface).     Figure 3: Comparison of RS from MODTRAN4 (rainbow-colored surface) against SMART (yellow surface),  plotted over wavelength [nm] and AOD.    The absolute difference of the resulting RS be-tween those two models is given in Fig. 4. It can be interpreted as the absolute error of SMART, given that MODTRAN4 provides the truth. The error is less than 0.02 reflectance values throughout the visual spectral range. The largest error, which is still below 0.1 re-flectance values, is found for an unusual high AOD below 400 nm.    Figure 4: Absolute difference of RS between MODTRAN4 and SMART,  plotted over wavelength [nm] and AOD.   3. RESULTS  SMART can be used also to study the influ-ence of different variables on the RS. The fol-lowing results illustrate its dependency on the surface albedo and AOD.  3.1 Artificial surface albedo  Artificial, spectrally flat surface albedo values were chosen to study their effect on RS as a function of AOD. The pure influence of the atmosphere is given in Fig. 5. A clean atmos-phere without any aerosols is purely Rayleigh or molecular scattering. It is therefore almost non-reflecting above 600 nm. The reflectance is increasing simultaneously with AOD due to additional Mie scattering of the particles. The effect of AOD is pronounced in the near-UV/blue part of the visible spectrum because scattering is most effective there. This trans-lates into a well-defined gradient of RS to-wards AOD. A small change in AOD produces a relatively strong change in the measurable signal, which is a strong asset for the aerosol retrieval.    Figure 5: RS with ρsfc = 0%  A bright surface (albedo of around 0.4) de-creases this gradient drastically (Fig. 6).    Figure 6: RS with ρsfc = 40%  An almost white surface makes the AOD re-trieval even impossible. Even a string change in AOD does not produce any change of the signal at the sensor level (Fig. 7).    Figure 7: RS with ρsfc = 90%    3.2 Real surface albedo  A realistic surface albedo can also be used in SMART. The black surface in Fig. 8 shows a lemonwood-vegetation spectrum, which was taken from SPECCIO (Hueni et al. 2009). On top of that, the rainbow colored surface visual-izes the influence of the atmosphere with re-spect to AOD. Again, Rayleigh scattering does not alter the red part of the visible spectrum and the most dominant influence of the Mie scattering is in the blue. The green-peak is still recognizable at high AOD, but it is less dis-tinct and the blue is dominating. This corre-sponds to a decrease in the color contrast.     Figure 8. Visualization of influence of the atmosphere on RS with respect to AOD  over a vegetation target.   4. REQUIRED SENSOR PERFORMANCE FOR THE AOD RETRIEVAL  SMART was used additionally to assess the required sensor performance for the AOD re-trieval in terms of SNR. It provides the interre-lation between AOD and the measurable signal at the sensor, translated into SNR. It was found for a surface albedo of 0.1 that an SNR of 100 or better is required to be able to distinguish differences of about 0.01 AOD values. This demanded sensitivity, expressed in noise-equivalent differential AOD (NE∆τaer) at 550 nm, is given by the violet line in Fig. 9. The yellow area indicates the fulfilled requirement. In the red area, the AOD retrieval is impossi-ble. Brighter surfaces would require higher SNR values, according to the decreasing gra-dient of RS in respect to AOD. This effect is further discussed in subsection 3.1. Please re-fer to (Seidel et al. 2008) for further details.     Figure 9. Visualization of SNR requirements for the aerosol retrieval as a function of AOD and NE∆τaer. The yellow area fulfills the AOD retrieval accuracy requirement  for a surface albedo of 0.1.   5. CONCLUSIONS  This study aimed at estimating AOD by the use of a radiative transfer model, which is rela-tively simple and still accurate enough for various applications. For typical remote sens-ing cases, the proposed SMART can reproduce the MODTRAN4 calculations quite well in terms of RS. It could be used therefore as a re-placement for MODTRAN4, whenever speed, flexibility and ease of use are important. SMART allows live calculations, helpful for the interpolation of a LUT or for visualization and educational purposes.  SMART was demonstrated by studying the interesting interrelation of the surface albedo and AOD on RS. Further, it was used to con-nect SNR to AOD and assess the minimal   SNR, which is required to retrieve AOD by the requested accuracy. This leads to the conclu-sion, that theoretically it will be possible with ESA's upcoming airborne Earth observing in-strument APEX (Itten et al. 2008) to retrieve AOD unprecedentedly accurate.  In the near future, SMART will be tested on airborne imaging spectroscopy data and vali-dated against in-situ AOD measurements. SMART could be enhanced later by taking gaseous absorption; polarization and direc-tional surface properties, as well as the terrain into account.   ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  We would like to thank Dr. Alexander Kokhanovsky for its help regarding the implementation of the radiative transfer equations into SMART.   REFERENCES  Berk, A., Bernstein, L.S., & Robertson, D.C. (1989). MODTRAN: a moderate resolution model for LOWTRAN7. In. Burlington, Massachusetts, USA: Spectral Sciences Inc. Chandrasekhar, S. (1960). Radiative Transfer. New York, USA: Dover d'Almeida, G., Koepke, P., & Shettle, E.P. (1991). Atmospheric Aerosols: Global Climatology and Radiative Characteristics. Hampton, Virginia, USA: Deepak Hueni, A., Nieke, J., Schopfer, J., Kneubühler, M., & Itten, K. (2009). The spectral database SPECCHIO for improved long term usability and data sharing. Computers & Geosciences, 35, 557-565 Itten, K.I., Dell'Endice, F., Hueni, A., Kneubühler, M., Schläpfer, D., Odermatt, D., Seidel, F., Huber, S., Schopfer, J., Kellenberger, T., Bühler, Y., D'Odorico, P., Nieke, J., Alberti, E., & Meuleman, K. (2008). APEX - the Hyperspectral ESA Airborne Prism Experiment. Sensors, 8, 6235--6259 Kokhanovsky, A.A. (2004). Light Scattering Media Optics: Problems and Solutions: Springer-Praxis Books in Environmental Sciences Kokhanovsky, A.A. (2008). Aerosol Optics - Light Absorption and Scattering by Particles in the Atmosphere: Springer Berlin Heidelberg Kokhanovsky, A.A., Mayer, B., & Rozanov, V.V. (2005). A parameterization of the diffuse transmittance and reflectance for aerosol remote sensing problems. Atmospheric Research, 73, 37--43 Seidel, F., Schläpfer, D., Nieke, J., & Itten, K.I. (2008). Sensor Performance Requirements for the Retrieval of Atmospheric Aerosols by Airborne Optical Remote Sensing. Sensors, 8, 1901--1914 Stamnes, K., Tsay, S.-C., Wiscombe, W., & Jayaweera, K. (1988). Numerically stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative transfer in multiple scattering and emitting layered media. Applied Optics, 27, 2502 Vermote, E.F., Tanré, D., Deuzé, J.L., Herman, M., & Morcrette, J.-J. (1997). Second Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum, 6s: An Overview. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 35, 675 - 686   

Efficient radiative transfer calculation and sensor performance requirements for the aerosol retrieval by airborne imaging spectroscopy

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Efficient radiative transfer calculation and sensor performance requirements for the aerosol retrieval by airborne imaging spectroscopy

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