We report on the application in domestic stove development of heterogeneous test methods that can simultaneously quantify gaseous emissions, condensed particulates and the mass of fuel burned in real time. Such measurements can rapidly identify ideal combustion conditions by post-facto dividing the test into arbitrary segments for detailed analysis. Domestic coal stoves typically operate daily across a wide range of operating conditions. The analysis technique was applied repeatedly throughout the development of a lignite burning stove suitable for use in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, the coldest and most heavily air-polluted capital city in the world. The outcome is a natural draft chimney stove with a >99% reduction in PM 2.5 emissions and >90% reduction in CO, relative to the baseline product. Including the ignition phase, the fire emits less than 0.5 mg of PM2.5 per MegaJoule. This challenges the popular notion that high-volatiles ‘low quality’ coals are inherently smoky

Pemberton-Pigott, Crispin

English

University of Johannesburg Institutional Repository

 DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW SMOKE MONGOLIAN COAL STOVE USING A HETEROGENEOUS TESTING PROTOCOL Crispin Pemberton-Pigott 1 SeTAR Centre, University of Johannesburg, P. O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, Johannesburg crispin@newdawn.sz ABSTRACT We report on the application in domestic stove development of heterogeneous test methods that can simultaneously quantify gaseous emissions, condensed particulates and the mass of fuel burned in real time. Such measurements can rapidly identify ideal combustion conditions by post-facto dividing the test into arbitrary segments for detailed analysis. Domestic coal stoves typically operate daily across a wide range of operating conditions. The analysis technique was applied repeatedly throughout the development of a lignite burning stove suitable for use in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, the coldest and most heavily air-polluted capital city in the world. The outcome is a natural draft chimney stove with a >99% reduction in PM 2.5 emissions and >90% reduction in CO, relative to the baseline product. Including the ignition phase, the fire emits less than 0.5 mg of PM2.5 per MegaJoule. This challenges the popular notion that high-volatiles ‘low quality’ coals are inherently smoky.  1. INTRODUCTION The promotion of fuel efficient and lower emissions stoves for cooking and space heating is the mainstay of projects increasing peoples’ access to modern energy’ [1] – an expression which means providing one or more of: fuel saving, better indoor air quality, more controllability, better thermal performance or access to a broader range of fuels at a lower cost in money, time or effort. The unfortunate reality is that relative to the needs of the three billion people cooking over fires each day, relatively few improved stoves are in use after decades of donor-funded development and promotion. It is the author’s view that the primary reasons for this are: a) that the products generally have poor quality and performance; and b) that, broadly stated, the methods used to evaluate stove performance in the laboratory do not readily reveal their advantages leading to poor product evaluation.   Growing interest in improving the combustion of domestic coal stoves has been prompted by health problems attributable to stove emissions of dry and condensed particulate matter. The Mongolian capital city of Ulaanbaatar is the coldest and, because of lignite stoves (Fig. 1), the most polluted capital in the world. The direct cause is the burning of wet lignite from the Nalaikh coal mine in simple stoves originally designed to burn wood. A decade of promoting ‘improved stoves’ brought no measureable relief, because the stoves are not, for the most part, ‘improved’.  Figure 1:  Traditional Mongolian stove  The most common stove performance evaluations involve completing some task such as boiling a pot of water [2]. In such tests, the thermal performance, gaseous emissions and particles of incomplete combustion are summed for the test and evaluated in the light of alternative constructions or tasks. If, during a portion of the test, the emissions are greatly reduced and during another portion, they are very high, the details of this are hidden by summing the emissions for the whole or even part of the test. Particulate matter has usually been collected on filter paper which is weighed before and after the test. The mass of CO emitted is usually the average concentration of the whole volume of the emissions collected in a hood, or a representative sample is drawn from a chimney and the mass calculated from the concentration, the chimney area and the gas velocity. It appears these methods were original developed for the evaluation of combustors which operated in continuous mode such as power stations and furnaces.  The methods are not appropriate for testing domestic stoves and have misdirected many researchers about performance. 2. THE HETEROGENEOUS TEST PROTOCOL FOR STOVES (HTP)* The development of heterogeneous test methods [3] which can simultaneously quantify gaseous emissions,                                                           * Developed by the author and James Robinson at the SeTAR Centre, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.  condensed particulates and the mass of fuel burned in real time under multivariate conditions has given stove developers a powerful tool to rapidly improve their performance. Real time measurements can rapidly identify ideal combustion conditions by dividing the test into arbitrary segments post-facto. Domestic coal stoves typically operate in a range of operating conditions each time they are used. A heterogeneous testing protocol (HTP) allows the division of the experiment into what are effectively multiple, even overlapping, tests with different combustion conditions. An HTP analysis sheet is used to find optimal performance conditions without the tester knowing in advance when these might occur.  The performance of a thermal device should be provided in the form of one or more performance curves with the device operating at different firing and workloads. A multivariate test involves operating the stove at different power levels, different excess air ratios, different primary and secondary air supply ratios, different pot loads, test durations, fuel loadings and so on. Many of these variables are not constant at all in a domestic stove, particularly a coal stove which is re-fuelled periodically. An HPT-based analysis provides sets of performance curves capturing some of this heterogeneity, thereby enabling the more rapid diagnosis and improvement of the design and performance of domestic stoves.  3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1  USE OF THE TEST TO IMPROVE A COAL BURNING STOVE IN MONGOLIA It was soon observed that there is a general relationship between PM formation and carbon-monoxide (CO)   formation, but only during the earlier stages of a coal fire. This initial relationship is close enough to guide a stove developer in the exploratory phase of design, provided the CO concentration is expressed as an emission factor: CO(EF).  The emission factor CO(EF), expressed in ppm(v), is the measured CO concentration multiplied by the total air supply (λ). It gives the calculated CO concentration of a standard cubic metre of combustion gases containing 0% O2 (i.e. zero excess air). For any given fuel there is a CO2 Maximum potential stack concentration. For each CO2 Max there is a CO(EF) that represents a CO/CO2 ratio of 2%, a common CO emission limit. The CO(EF) is a simple way to assess HTP outputs. A typical set of graphs from a combustion test are shown in Fig. 2., in this case for the baseline (traditional) Mongolian wood stove fuelled with coal. The CO(EF) (black line) in Fig. 2 shows that combustion efficiency is poor for a great deal of the time, but that after refuelling at minute 60, the fire newly loaded with high volatiles coal into a hot stove does burn quite well for about 25 minutes. The prevailing conditions when the CO(EF) was low, always had an Excess Air (EA) level below a threshold value: 300% (red arrow).  The vertical lines are used to indicate sections of interest. Between the Red and Orange lines in Fig. 2 the CO/CO2 ratio is below 2%, meeting the SA National Standard on the maximum Co emissions for a flame domestic stove.   Figure 2:  Baseline stove CO(EF) and PM2.5 lines. Values below 3 650 (red arrow) show CO/CO2 is below 2%.  Figure 3:  Good combustion occurred only when EA is less than 300% (λ < 4)   When the EA was low, the CO(EF) was usually low, however the correlation did not hold at all times.  Only when there was a robust flame was this true. Refuelling in a manner that covered the flame, even briefly, created very poor combustion with a consequent growth in black carbon (BC) and condensed particles. In such cases low EA correlated with a high CO(EF). The first idea is to quickly increase the percentage of the time the EA is low.   It was decided to light the fire at the back of the stove next to the heat exchanger inlet. A 60 mm diameter throttling pipe in which to burn the smoke was added to bring all smoke, flames and CO together (Fig. 4). The idea was that if a fire could be established near the exit of the combustion chamber all CO and smoke would have to pass through it before leaving. Several lighting techniques were tried before settling on one that produces a fairly large initial fire immediately in front of the pipe entrance as shown in Fig. 5.   Figure 4:  Pipe set into the back wall  Figure 5: Fire and smoke are drawn into the pipe The result is approximately the same as turning the Basa njengo Magogo lighting technique on its side (top-lit up-draft: TLUD). The End-lit Cross-draft (ELCD) configuration turned out to be the cheapest way (approximately $1.00. in parts) to reduce PM emissions significantly.  The real-time thermal efficiency curves for the two stoves show that the ELCD firing technique increased the thermal efficiency to 72% as shown in Fig. 6 and provided a more constant heat supply. A comparison of the thermal efficiency of the two designs in real time and cumulative (mass-compensated)† is plotted in Fig. 7.                                                            † The cumulative plotted values compensate each reading with the mass burned during the relevant interval, normally per 10 seconds. The result is a true reflection of the net heat delivered into the home at that point.   Figure 6:  ELCD fire configuration has a lower peak of PM2.5. The level reduces rapidly 10 minutes after igniton and thereafter remains low and nearly constant from minute 15 to minute 90.    Figure 7: The two smoother lines are the cumulative, mass-burned-compensated thermal efficiencies for the traditional (green line) and the ELCD (yellow line) stoves.    Figure 8:  With a controlled excess air ratio and a continuous supply of new coal falling from a hopper, the cross-draft fire burns evenly and cleanly over a prolonged period well after the coal is completely coked. Table 1:  Performance comparison between the baseline, ELCD modified traditional and improved stoves.  Traditional Stove End-lit Cross-draft Improved Stove CO, g MJ-1 8.16 3.6 0.53 CO reduction, % 0.0% 56% 94% Thermal efficiency, heating 63% 72% 72% Average CO/CO2 fuel 90% burned 9.6% 4.4% 0.6% Net kW delivered into home 3.7 5.7 4.2 Fuel burn rate, kg hr-1 1.6 2.1 1.8 PM 2.5, mg MJ-1, whole test 388‡ 67 0.4§ PM 2.5 reduction, % 0.0% 83% 99.9%                                                            ‡ Others have reported double this figure in tests of wood stoves in other countries.[4] § A portion of this measurement is undoubtedly contamination from the ambient air. For more than 50% of test time the flue gases are cleaner than the ambient air passing into the stove so it is net-negative for PM2.5 during this time. It was clear that supplying coal constantly to the fire was key to burning the volatiles as they arose from the devolatilising coal.  An entirely different new stove was constructed using a hopper to drop fuel constantly onto a grate, made in such a way that it maintained a cross draft fire. The gases are led to a small exit hole measuring 80 x 100 mm. The hopper was sealed to ensure that the fire did not develop upwards into the fuel load.  The fuel hopper, the combustion area and the heat exchanger are separated with this design, allowing them to be adjusted separately. The result was very encouraging. Fig. 8 shows the performance of the improved stove. The PM 2.5 line (Red) is barely visible. The ignition was adapted to take full advantage of the TLUD ignition of the kindling. A comparison of the three stoves is shown in Table 1. The parameters given are the most relevant of those calculated by the HTP analysis sheet.  4. CONCLUSION It is possible to burn high volatiles (50%) lignite in a simple natural draft stove if the combustion parameters are carefully set. What the optimum parameters are can most readily be established by using a heterogeneous testing protocol with real time measurements displayed and calculated in sections of interest.   The use of simpler testing methods seems to have failed to deliver substantially improved products.  Such methods include tracking the temperature of the chimney, measuring the CO concentration in the chimney and judging the smoke production.  The method adopted in this investigation, using the heterogeneous testing protocol, involves identifying periods of good combustion post hoc, and in subsequent tests attempting to extend such optimal combustion conditions from a few only a few minutes to several hours. A basic understanding combustion is applied and observations made. Many adjustments are made to the stove while it is running and the HTP analysis methods are applied to reveal meaningful relations and ratios.  The approach led to the rapid development of a much improved stove product, which is being manufactured by stove producers in the city of Ulaanbaatar.  5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  This study was conducted at the Stove Emissions and Efficiency Testing laboratory (SEET) in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The author acknowledges financial and administrative support for SEET from the Asian Development Bank, Mongolia and the Ministry of Mines, Minerals and Energy (MMRE). Financial support, workshop and design services for the improved stove were provided by GTZ Mongolia. Coordination between Donors and government was managed by the World Bank through UB-CAP. Essential insights were provided by Prof Lodoysamba from the Nuclear Research Laboratory at the National University of Mongolia. He and Prof Tseyen-Oidov from the Mongolian University of Science and Technology operated the stove for the baseline tests and are members of the SEET testing team. Finally, thanks to the SeTAR Centre at the University of Johannesburg for their continued collaboration on the development of the Heterogeneous Testing Protocol and data processing methods.  6. REFERENCES [1] “Sustainable Energy for Developing Countries”, Third World Academy of Science (TWAS), 2008. Available at:   http://twas.ictp.it/publications/twas-reports/SustainEnergyReport.pdf   [2]  Bailis R. “The Water Boiling Test”, 2007. Available at: http://www.berkeleyair.com/publications/doc_download/24-water-boiling-test-wbt-v-30   [3]  Makonese, T., Robinson, J., Pemberton-Pigott, C., Molapo, V. & Annegarn, H. “A heterogeneous testing protocol for certifying stove thermal and emissions performance for GHG and air quality management accounting purposes”. Paper presented at A&WMA Conference, 10-14 May 2010, Xian, China. In press JAWMA, 2011.   [4] Bond, T. & Roden, C. (2006), “Emission factors and real-time optical properties of particles emitted from traditional wood burning cookstoves”. Environmental Science and Technology 40, 6750-6757.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17144306   [5] Kimemia, D. (2009), “Biomass alternative urban energy economy: case of Setswetla, Alexandra Township, Gauteng”. Unpublished MSc dissertation: University of Johannesburg.  [6] Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (2010). Available at: http://cleancookstoves.org/overview/, accessed on 22 Jan 2011.   Author: Crispin Pemberton-Pigott has worked with dozens of Appropriate Technologies for 30+ years, largely designing labour-based manufacturing equipment. A stove maker for 25 years, he won the DISA Chairman's Award 2004 for the Vesto Stove made by his company, New Dawn Engineering.  He is a co-founder of the Eastern Cape Appropriate Technology Unit, the Renewable Energy Association of Swaziland and the Industrial Designers Association of South Africa. Presently he advises two Mongolian clean air projects and is the senior technical advisor at the Sustainable Energy Technology And Research (SeTAR) Centre at the University of Johannesburg. He volunteers at ETHOS and SABS co-writing stove standards and test protocols. For more information visit:  www.newdawnengineering.com crispin@newdawn.sz  

Development of a low-smoke Mongolian coal stove using a heterogeneous testing protocol

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Development of a low-smoke Mongolian coal stove using a heterogeneous testing protocol

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