Despite the fact that the  production  is  highly energy intensive aluminium and its alloys are  the  most widely used engineering materials next only to  iron  and steel because of  their  functional  and  economical  competi-tiveness. The world over, efforst are on to improve the properties of aluminium/alloys with a view to replacing costly and heavy weight materials in many applications, automobile, space and aerospace for example, for energy saving and economic benifits

Sivaramakrishnan, C S

English

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PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF ALUMINIUM Dr. C.S.Sivaramakrishnan Dy. Director National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur - 831 007 Despite the fact that the production is highly energy intensive. aluminium and its alloys are the most widely used engineering materials next only to iron and steel because of their functional and economical competitiveness. The world over, efforts are on to improve the properties of aluminium/alloys with a view to replacing costly and heavy weight materials in many applications, automobile, space and aerospace for example, for energy saving and economic benefits. The properties of aluminium alloys heavily depend on structural features and can be enhanced multifold by alloy chemistry, heat treatment and thermo-mechanical processing. This has been possible with the increased insight into the physical metallurgy of aluminium alloys. The basic advantages and applications areas of aluminium are the following : 	1. 	 Properties • Light weight (1/3 density of steel) • Resistant to weather • High reflectivity • Aluminium alloys can equal the strength of steel • High elasticity; properties do not deteriorate at low temperature • Readily workable: can be easily thinned to 1/100 mm • Conducts electricity & heat comparable with copper • Excellent founding properties 	2. 	 Application Areas Areas 	 Due to Transportation- Light-weight, resistance to corrosion Architecture - Decorative aspects Package - Resistance to corrosion, decorative aspects Electrical industry - Good electrical & heat conductivity Household - Good conductivity, resistance to Corrosion Chemical & Food industry - Resistance to corrosion Alloy Classification Aluminium and its alloys are broadly classified as cast and wrought under the 4 digit classification as per ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) specifications. Aluminium alloys can again be sub-classified into Heat treatable and Non-heat treatable alloys. The cast alloys are used as cast components with minor machining or heat-treatment. The wrought alloys, on the other hand, are used after the cast ingots are mechanically worked, heat treated or thermo-mechanically processed. Aluminium Alloys 	 Alloy No.  Al 99.00% Min. or greater 	 lxxx • Copper 	 2x.xx • Mn (with Mg) • Silicon 	 4xxx • Mg 	 5xxx • Mg & Si 	 6xxx • Zn, Mg 	 7xxx • Other elements 	8xxx • Unused series 	 9xxx 1st digit is indicates the alloy group 2nd & 3rd indicate aluminium purity digit after decimal place indicate the product form either casting or ingot Major Alloy System : • Al-Cu alloys : A1-8Cu, A1-10%Cu - also contains Zn/Si besides Cu - Heat treatable Al-Cu alloy • Al-Mg Alloys : Excellent corrosion resistance, good machinability. - (Al-4Mg) ; attractive appearance - Also contain Zn - die cast - Al-7Mg - sand cast - A1-10 Mg Al-Si alloys : High corrosion resistance, good weldability & low specific gravity - Al-5.3% Si 	Also contains Mg to strengthen by Mg2Si • Al-Si-Mg, Al-Si, Al-Si-Mg-Cu • Al-hyper : Contain Ni. Cu.Mg, V - Engine blocks eutectic Si : Outstanding fluidity and machinability • Al-Zn • Al-Zn - Bearing and bushes Minor alloying additions : Si - Not good for tensile properties Fe - Not good ductility Be - Used in Al-Mg alloys Cr,Mn - improves ductility Ni - improves tensile strength at high temperature • Ti, B,Zr - Grain refinement • P - Modifies hyper eutectic Al-. Si alloys Bi,Pb,Sn - improves machinability (Chip breakers) H- 2 Wrought Allots 	 Alloy No. Al 99.00% min. or greater 	 lxxx o Cu 	 2xxx o Mn 	 3xxx o Si 	 4xxx o Mg 	 5xxx o Mg & Si 	 6xxx o Zn 	 7xxx o Other elements 	 8xxx o Unused series 	 9xxx 1st digit identifies the alloy group 2nd digit indicates impurities 3rd & 4th digit indicates minimum aluminium content Wrought Alloys - Al-Mg, Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Mg-Si, Al-Zn-Mg, Al-Zn- Mg-Cu. EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS & IMPURITIES ON PROPERTIES • Density - Mg, Li & Si decrease density of aluminium - Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Ti and Zn increase density of Al - Si increase density till its solid solubility (S.S) limit (since lattice decreases). Above S.S. the density decreases. * Thermal expansion - Mg/Zn increases thermal expansion, others decrease. * Electrical Conductivity - All elements reduce electrical conductivity * Surface tension- Bi Ca, Li, Mg, Pb, Sb and Sn reduce surface tension. - Ag, Cu, Fe, Ge, Mn, Si, Zn have no effect. * viscosity 	 - Cu, Fe, Ti increase viscosity - Zn has no effect on viscosity - Mg, Li reduces viscosity METALLOGRAPHY OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS Etching to Reveal Structure Cast structure consists of grains. Etching causes dissolution of atom layers of metal from individual grains producing steps. The individual grains reflect light to different degrees. This enables the grains and phases to be distinguished (Fig.2a & 2b). Commonly used etching reagents for aluminium/alloys are Keller's reagent, hydro-fluoric acid and sodium hydroxide. Micro and Macro structures can be revealed by suitable etchants. CAST STRUCTURE Nucleation & Growth When the melt reaches the freezing point, nuclei form which increase in size and arrange themselves in certain close packed pattern. The latent heat released by the nuclei is conducted away by the surrounding matrix. The growth of the nuclei stops when the neighbouring crystal meet each other at grain boundaries and form grains. Inside each grain the aluminium atoms (- 1021 atoms in one grains) arrange in a lattice (Fig.3 & 4). Different grains have different orientation. Grain boundaries are weak areas with regard to chemical corrosion. ln pure aluminium and alloys undercooling occurs before nucleation if the heat. is removed faster mid no external surfaces are present. In commercial alloys, Ti, Ii , Inc, etc . arc present. in line distribution on which nucleation of aluminium takes place and the undercooling will be minimum. Ingot Structures (Fig.5) Chill zone 	 - Narrow region of fine equiaxed crystals Columnar zone - Parallel to heat flow direction Equiaxed zone of relatively coarse equiaxed crystals. Chill Zone The 1st crystallization takes place near the cold mould wall copiously forming fine grained zone equiaxed in nature. Columnar Zone Grains from Chill Zone grow parallel to heat flow direction releasing heat to mould and to the centre, forming long columnar grains. Equiaxed Central Zone The central liquid solidifies with fresh nucleation or nuclei derived from chill zone due to convection to form coarse equiaxed grains. Dendritic Growth If one looks into the inside of a grain a tree like structure can be seen which are dendrite arms. Cross section of a grain would reveal cells which are sections of dendrite arms. Dendritic growth occurs due to the fact that heat is taken away from corners and edges of cubic nuclei of aluminium. EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM (Fig.6 , 7a & 7b) There are graphic representation of temperature Vs composition indicating the phases, solidus/liquidus temperatures etc. e.g. Al-Cu, Al-Si. These diagrams are obtained through thermal analysis primarily in liquid to solid transformation. For solid - solid transfor-mation various other methods like dilatometry, metallography, resistivity etc. arc employed to get. the equilibrium diagrams. The H-4 solidification process can be followed with the help of au equilibrium diagram in a homogeneous alloy system. The various phases are designated as a. 0. y. 8. etc. Lever Rule Lever Rule will give the fraction of a particular phase. Eutectic:A liquid transforms to two solids at. a fixed temperature. Al 12.5%Si, A1-33%Cu. Refer Fig.7a. A-C-beginning of crystallization. Growth of aluminium rich primary crystal (a S.S.) C-D-Simultaneous growth of two crystal types forming eutectic network around primary aluminium(a) E-D--Pure eutectic crystallization D- End of crystallization. Modification Process for refining the micro-structure through addition of a third element before casting an alloy e.g.. Na for hypo & eutectic Al-Si alloys and P for hyper eutectic 0 fir Al-S Alloys. By modification the mechanical properties -ire significantly enhai iccd. GRAIN REFINEMENT Refining the grain size by heterogeneous or homogeneous nucleation. Fine grain size is desired for excellent. room temperature mechanical properties. TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS Simple Eutectics Be 11B Si 1VB Zn IIB Ga IIIB Ge IVB Sn 1V13 Fig 1113 Partly Miscible (Monotectie system,No Known Intermetallics are formed with these elements) Cd 1113 In 11113 TA IVA Pb IBB Bi VB Na la K IA Rb IA CS IA Lanthanides, actinides are miscible in liquid state and form complex binary systems with intermetallics. I-1-5 Solid solution with peritectics at Al end of phase diagram Ti IVA V VA Cr VIA Zr IVA Cb VA Mo VIA 11f IVA Tn VA W VIA o All other metallic elements are completely miscible in liquid state of aluminium o Si is completely miscible in liquid Al o B has only 0.02% solubility in liquid Al o C slightly soluble o P & As insoluble o S is appreciably soluble o SE & Te completely miscible. o Except 1-12 common gases are note soluble in aluminium. o No element is completely miscible in aluminium in solid state o Zn has the greatest S.S. (66.4 at%) o Ag, Mg, Li have greater than 10 at % solid solubility. HARDENING PROCESSES IN ALUMINIUM/ALUMINIUM ALLOYS o Work hardening o Alloy hardening - 	 Solid Solution hardening (used in non heat treatable alloys) - Precipitation hardening (used in heat treatable alloys) Hardening phase Heat treatable 	- 	Al-Mg-Si (6xxx) 	 Mg2Si) Al-Cu (2xxx) 	 - CuAl2 Al-Zn-Mg (7xxx) - 	 MgZn2 Non-heat treatable - 	Al-Mg (5xxx_) Al 	 (lxxx) Al-Mn (3xxx) o Precipitation Hardening (Fig.8) * Solution Treatment (above solubility curve) * Quenching (water) * Ageing - (NA,AA); NA - Natural Ageing AA - Artificial Ageing Precipitation Hardening (Fig. 8) * Solution Treatment. (above solubility curve) H- 6 * Quenching (Water) * Ageing - (NA-AA) 	 NA - Natural Ageing AA - Artificial Ageing Precipitation Stages (Fig.t) Zone formation due to atomic vibration and clustering of unlike atoms (Al <--> Cu, Mg <--> Zn, Mg <-->Si). Strengthening due to hindrance to dislocation movement. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Altenpohl; Aluminium viewed from within Aluminium Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1982. 2. D.A.Granger, Solidification structures of aluminium alloy ingots, Vol.9, ASM Handbook, 1985, 629-636. 3. M.C. Flemings, Solidification Processing, McGraw Ilill, 1974. 4. Aluminium - Properties and Physical Metallurgy, Ed. John E.Hatch, ASM 1984. 5. 1.J. Polmear, Light Alloys - Metallurgy of light metals, 2nd Edition, 1981, Edward Arnold. 6. Microstructural control in aluminium Alloys : Deformation. recovery and recrystallization. Ed. E.11cnry Chia and II. J. McQueen, Met.Soc., 1985. 7. Key to Aluminium Alloys, Compiled by W.I lufnagel, Pub . Aluminium Zentrale, 1982. 1-1-7 (Intl( 	 it ►formrdinte shiffos 	 bright .449111  VA0 4* 	Al-Cu-Mg 	 	 	  Fig, . 	 altanituon flefloctlon of incident light by etched grains. The observer sees from above "steps" In the crystal structure revealed by etching In the (darn of ohne► vallon, ench r,lopn In the crystal sralm-n reflects mote ft loss light Into the nye of Ihn observer. I tin crystal on the for tell rollects the light directly back at the source and there-fore seems dark. Whereas. the crystals on the far right reflects the light directly In the eye of the observer and appears bright. The schematic section, perpen-dicular to the etched surface, shows four crystals with their cryslallogtraphic planes parallel to the page. Angle of Incident light: 45" (M. Schenck. Age hat Bening alloys T 	 AI Mg si - — Al-Zrt-My --1  Al -Zit Mg 6-11 Al-Si Casting Al-Si-Cu . 	 alloys _I 1  Al 	 War k - liar do( tiny alloys Fig.2a rIchert aluminum surface (99 99% Al). Electron micrograph. One can see that the etchant removed layers of atoms, one alter the other, preferentially from crystallographic: planes parallel to Ihn laces ol lho ele-mentary cube. 7 500x H-8 Coolinglsolidilication) and heating (melting) curves for 99.99% aluminum. i1; ealI # II ?heat  0' scbiii c „i)  \---\ 660 cr ,rtiodyil ig IIIL 11e(11 01' li isioi 1 I owilition 011111) 	 nlitichtia (1 rig.2b 11011aVIOr of Flf01111 during crystallization of nIumaium (I. n., during solidification of nn alu-minum melt). Fig.3. Aluminum ()toms 	in Ille 'troll : 	 in 11)e :,solid stilly: Morns l'il\cil in lhe tvoclom 1111)1 own/ 	o1' the atoms 	 lattice 	( - 	 0- (% 	..... 	 0N,, 	 0 	 0-' --- ' --( .13  n d ...• 	 'r) i b - .... 	 o_1.. 	 I o 0, (?, ? 0 . _ 1 d 	I . op' 	 0 r   	...   	_., ., 0, 	 o(ito . ,0 \ to._ o o 0 , ....,_ 	(.F)(-„ri..- 	.Y ,-io 1 c!.._1- ____„ 0 	 0 "Solidificalion fronl ", that is,11)e 	 y 	lie•t,ecil 	 (Ind solid taumir HMI 1-1-9 Structure of a hypoeutectic - alloy (Hanemann-Schrader). An alu-minum-10% copper alloy, eutectic around larger aluminum-rich primary crystals (a-solid solution). 550x, /1,-- • •1' • r.• "..)*:1*-1 1.3i t 	• • • • / 4.:- • I 4i> (.4( \lb , 	 .1 	 • 	 -0" 1,11-0. /... . , ( L, s c.; ;A:. j\,.Iis. :(, I, 	 , ;'-- 	1.41n1 t• • ''' . )I'. „ , 	 .. . 3 —; •"'"vn:::., '‘Viii , I);;‘ Vilj ;'14 3 '..:ki,'-7":( 	 i 4"'s,,, ) )L-:*-) 1 	 ,.,f,,, Aluminum alloy with 8% silicon. Hypoeutectic alloy with alu-minum-rich primary crystals. 85x. Aluminum alloy with 20% silicon. Hypereutectic alloy with primary • silicon crystals. Alusuisse micrograph. See Figure 38 for eutectic alloy struc-ture. 120x. Structure of sand- cast aluminum-silicon alloys. F i g 4 • H- Fig. 5.. 53  liquid iquidus Temp. Q, Theorel. 	 I Solidus —1— k-. Temp. 	< _ K3 Acludl 1---cb Solidus At (.111110 1:1111 pt).', 711.i111 Athwi 'ruin/qui it 7°A, he/Crovneous .,;olit 	 .y14.1)4.1111 ‘e Su Liquidus Temp. Solidus Temp. solid (homogeneous sfruclui .e) liquid 4 ra nw,l,wrihmnIllrmOrlAcmmw16,11 1,1114alitmlittmlblq.1,0Wcw:lillrollitIOnquIrdialw) T hr,ptillI nlmchmthwilywrimvo,11,,d 1hrim,071,1,1111.;COmitilmcirAilhOpttitrO,mthol;owillitholmlm 7onns, owncl;tIly In Thu flpi/Of Inclrri HUI 13)It1111t1:1( Wahl.; dirt N itr if 011,1:tiOn O1i1t(P;it010 Iltci 101110Val crl !Will. Solidification of a homogeneous alloy under equi-librium conditions. Solidification of a homogeneous alloy under non-equilibrium conditions. Solidification of a heterogeneous alloy under equi-librium conditions. The 13 crystals are solid solution crystals, rich in the alloying metal. . Observing crystallization with tho aid of an equilibrium diagram. Liquidus Tempe ratu Solidus TeMpeTatun Time I. 	 t 	 t. r 	 .1. t 	 t• t • I.  77 	 16 	 711 	 2 	 28 	 .72 	 36 Mass % Copper. Fig.7b Temp erature  0 mushy Fig.7a . Schematic solidification curve Relation between equilibrium diagram and structure for the aluminium-copper system. Representation of 4% copper content. o C 0 0 C: O o0co 0000C O 000C 00o0C  6 Atomic arrangement: : C. 	•• 	 • 41 • • 0•0:, 	 . • .*Y,;21,-,.-1' v‘. 	 . • • •\ • • • •No':,;,7 	 •c,,•' • 	• • • •, • • `." • 	 ,: s' •n1 .•• •) • • H-13 Solution treatment 5oo 450 $.4 w Quenching Artificial ageing   Natural ageing   Tx:\AALL (13 Fig.8. Schematic precipitation hardening of A1-4Cu-2Mg (2024) alloy Fig.9a (a) Pure Metal 	 (b) Substitutional Solid Solution (Cu/Mg) (c) Interstitial Solid Solution (H2 ) Two foreign crystals (heterogeneities). Fig.9b .• • • •• • • • • • • 	 • V Grain ooundary, • ' • 1..• Al l'between two Al grains atom 0 foreign atom. Atomic arrangement in a heterogeneous structure 

Physical Metallurgy of Aluminium

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Physical Metallurgy of Aluminium

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