The Old Testament describes in detail the metallurgical achievements, both in the period before the conquest and colonization of the promised land (mostly related to the manufacturing of the Tabernacle, in this sense, the gold chandelier with seven branches, also known as the menorah, is an exceptional example), and the period after the conquest and colonization of the promised land (the sea of bronze pillars Boaz and Jachin, the 10 golden candlesticks with seven arms, etc., famous artifacts of Solomon's Temple facilities, are good examples). Question: at that time, did the Jews have the technical and technological knowledge necessary to create things in order to reach the great achievements of the metallurgical processes described in the Old Testament? This article tries to answer this question

Rodica WENKERT

Strul MOISA

The Annals of “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati Fascicle IX Metallurgy and Materials Science

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THE ANNALS OF “DUNAREA DE JOS” UNIVERSITY OF GALATI. 
FASCICLE IX. METALLURGY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 
N0. 1 – 2013, ISSN 1453 – 083X 
 
 
 
 
THE PRE-BIBLICAL METALLURGICAL ART  
ON THE BIBLICAL TERRITORY 
 
Strul MOISA1, Rodica WENKERT2 
1Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel,  
2Soroka University Medical Center, Beer-Sheva, Israel,  
emails: smoisa@bgu.ac.il; rodicawe@clalit.org.il  
 
ABSTRACT 
 
The Old Testament describes in detail the metallurgical achievements, both in 
the period before the conquest and colonization of the promised land (mostly 
related to the manufacturing of the Tabernacle, in this sense, the gold chandelier 
with seven branches, also known as the menorah, is an exceptional example), and 
the period after the conquest and colonization of the promised land (the sea of 
bronze pillars Boaz and Jachin, the 10 golden candlesticks with seven arms, etc., 
famous artifacts of Solomon's Temple facilities, are good examples). Question: at 
that time, did the Jews have the technical and technological knowledge necessary to 
create things in order to reach the great achievements of the metallurgical 
processes described in the Old Testament? This article tries to answer this question. 
 
KEYWORDS: Canaan, pre-biblical metallurgy, casting, lost wax casting, 
Nahal Mishmar`s Treasure 
  
1. Introduction 
 
Even before it was colonized by the Jews, The 
Promised Land – known as Canaan – was inhabited 
by other peoples (Canaanites, Amorites, Philistines, 
etc.). At that time, those peoples already had a certain 
degree of culture and civilization, including a high 
level of metallurgical creativity and development.  
As a result of the contact with these peoples, the 
Israelites were able to absorb technology, in addition 
to technological knowledge that they already had 
from the previous period which also includes the 
Egyptian slavery period; exception is the iron 
manufacturing1. For requirements of the subject 
matter, the pre-biblical time is the chalcolithic period 
(or Copper Age, 4500-3300 BC). For the two 
reference coordinates – time (the pre-biblical 
period)/geographical area/(Canaan) - based on 
archaeological material, two things with connection 
to the metallurgical aspects will be presented: (1) 
casting as a widely used pre-biblical metallurgical 
process, and (2) the treasure from Nahal Mishmar. 
 
                                                            
1 A good example is the conflict with the Philistines, 
described in Kings1. 
2. Casting, a widely used pre-biblical 
metallurgical process 
 
Before it was colonized by the Israelites, the 
land of Canaan was inhabited by other peoples.  
These people had reached a high level of 
metallurgical development and creativity. For 
example, in Canaanite temples were discovered many 
statues cast in bronze, mostly of small size.  
An example is the figurine in Figure 1, dated 
sec. 17 BC: in figure 1a2, we can see the original 
casting mold, made of stone; Figure 1b is the statue of 
a worship idol, cast in modern conditions in the 
original stone mold. In pre-biblical times, casting was 
one of the most important technological processes, 
used for the fabrication of copper objects.  
The general scheme of development of 
processes for manufacturing objects by casting is 
shown in Figure 2. The raw material used was copper 
ore which may contain impurities of arsenic3. 
                                                            
2 The mold was discovered following excavations near 
Naharya (northern Israel), in a place where a 
Canaanite temple existed. 
3 The Nahal Mishmar`s treasure – most copper-
arsenic bronze artifacts constitutes an eloquent 
example. 
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FASCICLE IX. METALLURGY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 
N0. 1 – 2013, ISSN 1453 – 083X 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 1. Canaanite religious idol Fig. 2. General scheme for manufactured artifacts by casting process 
 
As reference, the mineral exists in appreciable 
quantities as carbonate- malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2. 
The process used was pyro-metallurgical: thermal 
dissociation in a coal bed at temperatures of 7000C.4  
The first two activities in the scheme shown in 
Figure 1 are de facto extractive metallurgy.  
The result, after melting, is a mass of clay which 
included copper grains5. The casting was done in 
disposable forms (sand, wax models, etc.) or forms 
with multiple uses (stone), etc., to a wide range of 
uses: cult and ornament objects, work tools (knives, 
chisels, axes, etc.), etc.  
Lost Wax Casting process is one of the oldest 
techniques of casting metal - about 5000 years [2, 3, 
and 4]. Initially, the process was used for idols, 
ornaments, jewelry, etc.  
But it seems that the Middle East has the first use 
of this process. In the Middle East, the Lost Wax 
Casting process has been used increasingly wider in 
Mesopotamia and Sumer (for statues made of copper 
and later bronze) since 3500 years BC; something 
later, the method is found in Anatolia.  
                                                            
4 The melting process is carried out in two phases: 
(*)carbonate dissociation: Cu2CO3(OH)2 → 2CuO + 
CO2 ↑+ H2O ↑ and (**)metal oxide dissociation: 2CuO 
→ 2Cu + O2 ↑ 
5 The slug will be eliminated later - totally or partially, 
and the copper granules obtained, following the 
melting procedure. 
The ancients quickly understood the advantages 
of the process: obtaining artifacts with complex 
configurations, versatility, repeatability, minimal 
finishing operations, the technique can be used for a 
large variety of metals and alloys (copper, gold, 
silver, bronze, etc.), etc.6  
The majority of artifacts belonging to the 
Treasury from Nahal Mishmar were made by Lost 
Wax Casting process.  
Made no later than 3700 years BC, this means 
that the first use of this process in the region was for 
the artifacts discovered in Nahal Mishmar. 
 
3. The Treasure from Nahal Mishmar 
 
We are in 1961. The team of archaeologists led 
by Pesach Bar Master was engaged in the search for 
possible additional scrolls in the Judean Desert, near 
the Dead Sea, where manuscripts from famous 
Oumran were discovered.  
The geographical point at coordinates 
31°38'0.93"N 35°36'4.34"E (located between Masada 
                                                            
6 In antiquity, the technique was known in India, 
China, Thailand, and was used by the Greeks, the 
Romans, the Aztecs and the Mayans, but also in 
Mexico and by the African population near the Benin 
bay. Many pieces found in Pharaoh Tutankhamen’s 
tomb (1333-1324 BC) were also made through this 
process. 
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THE ANNALS OF “DUNAREA DE JOS” UNIVERSITY OF GALATI. 
FASCICLE IX. METALLURGY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 
N0. 1 – 2013, ISSN 1453 – 083X 
 
 
and Ein Gedi) is a cave accessible with difficulty, 
today called the Nahal Mishmar's Treasure.  
In this cave were discovered 442 objects, 
wrapped in a mattress of straw, a real treasure (Fig.3).  
 
 
Fig. 3. Treasure of Nahal Mishmar: left: at finding time; right: after preservation 
 
This treasure is the largest group of ancient 
copper objects, found so far in the Middle East. 
Among these objects, 429 were made of copper-
arsenic alloy (4-12% arsenic). This arsenic-bronze is 
the first alloy in the history of civilization [6]. 10 
crowns, 256 mace heads, 118 scepters, 16 work tools 
chisel shaped were inventoried. Also, the thesaurus 
contains a set of objects of other materials: six of 
hematite, five of hippopotamus ivory and one of 
elephant ivory. Their esthetics is exceptional and they 
are so sophisticated that in many cases modern 
artisans are surprised. The shape and decoration of 
each artifact is unusual. Many are so strange that they 
it defy accurate definition. An additional aspect: each 
artifact is in itself unique, given that there are no two 
identical objects.  
 
 
    Fig. 4. Examples of artifacts from the Nahal Mishmar’s treasure 
 
Some additional examples are shown in Figure 
4: a crown (center), a two-headed (left), a scepter 
with three-deer heads (right)7. 
The fact that 338 of objects represent deities, 
• copper was associated with other minerals 
rich in arsenic [koutekit (Cu5As2) domeikite 
(Cu3As)] and sulfur [Covelit (CuS)]. 
• Carbon-14 dating of the reed mat in which 
                                                            
7 An explanation accepted by most researchers is that the objects found were objects of worship and belonged to 
Ein Gedi temple discovered. This temple is known in literature as the Chalcolithic Temple and the distance 
between Nahal Mishmar and Ein Gedi is about 12 km. Researchers believe that at the time of reference, for 
reasons of insecurity, the objects were transferred temporarily from Ein Gedi temple in a temporary place of 
refuge, the cave from Nahalal Mishmar. The reason for insecurity is not well defined, but depositors should have 
to return the treasure back to the Ein Gedi. The fact is that they did not returned it and the treasury had to wait for 
the team of archaeologists led by Pesach. 
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FASCICLE IX. METALLURGY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 
N0. 1 – 2013, ISSN 1453 – 083X 
 
 
deity heads, scepters, supports the hypothesis that the 
antique warehouse complex was used for ceremonial 
and religious needs. The metal particles were studied 
for geo-chemistry-mineralogy. For this purpose, a 
variety of methods of investigation were used: SEM 
equipped with EDS (morphology and chemistry), 
ICP-AFS (chemical analysis), XRD (mineralogical 
composition). 
 
A few results: 
• chemical analysis of most minerals: 40.5% 
Cu, 10% As, 4% CaO, 2% P205, 6.7% Al203, 25.3% 
Si02, 1.5% Fe203, 1.8% Na20, 1 2% K2O, 1.1% Ti02, 
0.3% SO3, 0.4% MgO, 2700 ppm Zn, 1600 ppm Mn, 
400 ppm Ba, 360 ppm Pb, 100 ppm Ag, 55 ppm V, 
25 ppm Sb. 
 • EDS analysis results of mineral elements: 
71% Cu and 29% As. 
the objects were wrapped suggests that it dates to at 
least 3700 BC. 
Artefacts are particularly beautiful, with 
complex geometry, which explains the skill, 
professionalism and experience of the Canaan 
artisans8. Saas notes [7]: The treasures from the 
Judean Desert represent the acme of the 
metallurgical skill of Chalcolithic artisans, working 
from 4500 to 3150 B.C.E., when copper and copper-
arsenic alloys were first widely used in the Near 
East ...  
In parallel, it should be emphasized that the 
combination of primitive art, religion and metallurgy 
is striking in this case. Many of the artefacts were 
made by Lost Wax Casting process. Also, additional 
procedures were used: casting in open forms, casting 
in closed forms, etc. Several types of artefacts and 
their sections are shown in Figure 5. 
 
 
Fig. 5. Some examples of artifacts types from the Nahal Mishmar`s treasure 
 
As mentioned before, the material from which 
the Nahal Mishmar artefacts were made is arsenic 
bronze, the first alloy in the history of civilization, 
developed around 4000 BC.  
Arsenic is a rare element in the earth's crust: its 
abundance is at about 5x10-4 % estimated. However, 
it often accompanies ores of gold, silver, lead and 
copper, thus becoming a by-product. Perhaps at first, 
this bronze was made by accident, likely caused by 
the similarity of colors both metalliferous ores and 
green-light the flame when heating in the furnace. 
One thing is sure: both "metallurgical" ancient and 
user - that could even be one and the same person - 
quickly realized that the pieces made of arsenic 
bronze have superior both technological properties 
(casting and forging capability) and use properties 
(toughness, hardness) compared to the similar parts 
made of copper. 
Regarding the starting question: did the Jews 
of that time hold technical and technological 
knowledge necessary to create things of the great 
achievements of metallurgical order described in 
the Old Testament?  
An affirmative answer can be given: the Jews 
came into contact with people who had a high level 
of metallurgical development and creativity, which 
allowed the technological knowledge assimilation. 
                                                                                                                                                                                        
8 Today, the artifacts are exhibited at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, Department of Antiquities. 
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FASCICLE IX. METALLURGY AND MATERIALS SCIENCE 
N0. 1 – 2013, ISSN 1453 – 083X 
 
 
4. Conclusions 
 
• In pre-biblical times, casting was a widely 
used metallurgical process. 
• Pre-biblical peoples held a high level of 
development and metallurgical creativity. 
• In addition to technological knowledge 
already held in previous periods and by contact with 
these people, the Israelites could absorb metallurgical 
technology. 
• Metallurgical achievements described in the 
Old Testament had the necessary technological 
knowledge support in order to be materialized. 
 
References 
 
[1]. S. Moisa - Biblia si Metalurgia (in Romanian), Editura Galaxia 
Gutenberg, (2011). 
[2]. http://www.goldbulletin.org/assets/file/goldbulletin/downloads/ 
Hunt_2_13.pdf L. B. Hunt, The long history of lost wax casting. 
[3]. Moorey, P. R. S. - Early Metallurgy in Mesopotamia, in The 
Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys. Paper from the Second 
International Conference on the Beginning of the Use of Metals 
and Alloys, Zhengzhou, China, 21-26 October 1986., ed. R. 
Maddin Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England: The MIT 
Press. (1988)  
[4]. Muhly, J. D. - The Beginnings of Metallurgy in the Old World, 
in The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys. Paper from the 
Second International Conference on the Beginning of the Use of 
Metals and Alloys, Zhengzhou, China, 21-26 October 1986., ed. R. 
Maddin Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England: The MIT 
Press, (1988). 
[5]. Moorey, P. R. S. - The Chalcolithic Hoard from Nahal 
Mishmar, Israel, in World Archaeology vol. 20 (1988), pg. 171–
189. 
[6]. S. llani, A. Rosenfeld - Ore source of arsenic copper tools 
from Israel during Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages, in Terra 
Nova, vol. 6 (1994), pag. 177-179. 
[7]. S. L. Saas - The Substance of Civilization, Arcade Publishing, 
New York, (1998), pag. 59. 
 
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The Pre-Biblical Metallurgical Art on the Biblical Territory

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The Pre-Biblical Metallurgical Art on the Biblical Territory

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