Vješta sportska izvedba ne bi bila moguća bez predane vježbe i ekstenzivnog rada. Kao
rezultat uključenosti u takav trening eksperti stječu specifične kognitivne vještine koje prema
teoriji dugoročnog radnog pamćenja sportašima omogućuju svladavanje ograničenog
kapaciteta radnog pamćenja. Potkrijepljen istraživanjima o superiornim specifičnim
perceptivno-kognitivnim sposobnostima vrhunskih sportaša, ovaj teorijski okvir postaje
dominantnim za objašnjenje vrhunske sportske izvedbe. Ipak, recentne spoznaje upućuju na
ulogu radnog pamćenja u sportskoj izvedbi na različitim razinama specifičnog znanja otvarajući
prostor modelima kapaciteta.
Cilj ovog rada bio je ispitati ulogu kapaciteta radnog pamćenja u zadacima taktičkog
odlučivanja s različitim zahtjevima za pažnju nogometaša različite razine ekspertnosti. U
istraživanju je sudjelovalo ukupno 129 nogometaša (42 profesionalnih, 46 amaterskih te 41
rekreativni nogometaš) starih između 18 i 42 godine (M = 26.36, SD = 5.58). U istraživanju su
korištena dva zadatka radnog pamćenja (operation span i simmetry span) te tri zadatka
taktičkog odlučivanja: zadatak taktičkog odlučivanja bez dodatnih zahtijeva za pažnju, zadatak
taktičkog odlučivanja s ometajućim slušnim podražajem te zadatak taktičkog odlučivanja s
dijeljenjem pažnje. Dobiveni rezultati upućuju na brže taktičko odlučivanje profesionalnih u
odnosu na amaterske i rekreativne nogometaše, kao i amaterskih u odnosu na rekreativne
nogometaše u sva tri korištena taktička zadatka. Točnije taktičko odlučivanje profesionalnih u
odnosu na amaterske i rekreativne nogometaše također je zabilježeno u sva tri zadatka taktičkog
odlučivanja, dok veća točnost amaterskih nogometaša u odnosu na one rekreativne nije
zabilježena jedino u zadatku s dijeljenjem pažnje. Isto tako, pokazalo se kako u sva tri zadatka
taktičkog odlučivanja nogometaši s većim kapacitetom radnog pamćenja donose brže taktičke
odluke, dok pozitivni efekt kapaciteta radnog pamćenja na točnost taktičkih odluka nije utvrđen
jedino u zadatku bez dodatnih zahtijeva za pažnju. Efekt interakcije ekspertnosti i kapaciteta
radnog pamćenja nije utvrđen niti u jednom od zadataka taktičkog odlučivanja što govori o
jednakom doprinosu kapaciteta radnog pamćenja taktičkom odlučivanju nogometaša različite
razine ekspertnosti. Također, nogometaši nižeg kapaciteta radnog pamćenja nisu učestalije
zapažali vlastito ime u ometajućoj slušnoj poruci.Introduction
Skilled sport performance would not be possible without deliberate practice and
extensive work. As a result of engagement in deliberate practice activities, experts acquire
sophisticated and complex skills that, as proposed by the long-term working memory theory
(Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995), enable them to circumvent basic limits
of working memory capacity and sequential processing. Consistent with classical models of
skill acquisition (e.g. Anderson, 1982; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977), Ericsson (2014) stated that
acquired mechanisms gradually result in automated processes and circumvent the role of any
basic general cognitive capacities. Thus, according to this theoretical framework, deliberate
practice provides optimal opportunities for learning, skill acquisition and improving current
level of performance in a specific domain (Ericsson & Charness, 1994), and can result with
experts’ adaptation to the specific constraints imposed by the performance environment
(Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996).
Supported by research on superior perceptual-cognitive skills of experts (e.g. Mann, Williams,
Ward, & Janelle, 2007; Williams & Ford, 2008), this view has since become the dominant
theoretical account of sport performance and sport expertise. However, recent research
breakthroughs emphasize the role of working memory in sports performance at different levels
of expertise (e.g. Hambrick & Meinz, 2011) moving the spotlight to the capacity models
(Baddeley, 1986; Engle, Kane, Tuholski, 1999).
The aim and the research methodology
The aim of this paper was to examine the role of working memory capacity in tactical
decision-making tasks with different attentional demands in soccer players of different level of
expertise. A total of 129 soccer players (42 professional, 46 amateurs and 40 recreational
players) aged between 18 to 42 years (M = 26.36, SD = 5.58) participated in the study. Two
working memory tasks (operation span and simmetry span) were used in the research, as well
as three tactical decision-making tasks: tactical decision-making task without attentional
demands, tactical decision-making task with auditory distraction stimuli and tactical decisionmaking
task with divided attention demand. Results
The results indicated faster tactical decision-making of professional in contrast to
amateur and recreational soccer players, as well as faster tactical decision - making of amateurs
in relation to recreational soccer players in all three tactical tasks used. More accurate tactical
decision-making of professional in comparison to amateur and recreational soccer players has
also been found in all three tactical decision-making tasks, while the higher accuracy of amateur
soccer players compared to recreational ones was not noted only in the divided attention tactical
task. Likewise, in all three tactical decision-making tasks, soccer players with a higher working
memory capacity made faster tactical decisions, while the positive effect of the working
memory capacity on the tactical decision accuracy has not been established solely in the task
without the need for additional attention. The expertise-working memory capacity interaction
effect has not been found in any of tactical decision-making tasks, which indicates equal
contribution of the working memory capacity to the tactical decision-making of soccer players
with different level of expertise. Also, low working memory capacity soccer players were not
more likely to detect their own name in a distracting auditory stimulus.
Discussion
Faster and more accurate tactical-decisions of professional soccer players in comparison
to the amateur and recreative soccer players are one more empirical argument to the importance
of deliberate practice and acquired domain related knowledge. Furthermore, showing predictive
role of working memory capacity in tactical decision-making of soccer players with different
levels of expertise, results support capacity models of working memory and challenge longterm
working memory theory propositions and related circumvention-of-limits hypothesis.
Firm empirical evidence for capacity models, are particularly visible from the results of tactical
decision - making tasks with distracting auditory stimulus and divided attention tactical -
decision making task. It seems that working memory capacity is equally strong predictor of
decision making reaction time of professional, amateur and recreational soccer players in those
tactical demands. Taken together, results suggested that expertise level and working memory
capacity make additive and independent contributions to soccer tactical - decision making,
which is the main tenet of building block hypothesis. However, in line with theoretical
expectations, in some aspects of tactical decision making, such as tactical accuracy in
conditions with auditory distraction and tactical speed and accuracy in divided attention conditions, results showed tendency for the interaction effect that indicates circumvention of
working memory capacity at highest level of expertise. Future research designs, including
similar or diverse tactical decision - making tasks, are needed to test those hypotheses and to
shed light to the role of working memory capacity in tactical decision making, and when, and
to what extent circumvention of that capacity is feasible
