Abstract Rice is a staple food in sub-Saharan Africa and many other regions of the world. There is a year-on-year increase in demand for rice in the region. Although there are some large-scale producers, most rice production in the region is by rural farmers and processing is done in small rural communities. Analysis of energy use in rice processing has become critical due to the dire consequences of deforestation and the increasing cost of fuel. Therefore, we studied the energy use pattern in medium-and small-scale rice parboiling outfits. Five set of parboilers in the upper Benue River basin in Adamawa State, Nigeria were selected for the study: three small rural parboilers and two medium-scale suburban parboilers. A questionnaire was used to gather data, along with inspection of the firewood sizes and the stove used. Data gathering from the two medium-scale suburban parboilers involved on-site study. Two energy parameters involved in rice parboiling are human energy and thermal energy. Thermal energy comes entirely from firewood. The human energy use per kilogram of parboiled paddy was higher for the rural small-scale parboiling process than for the medium-scale parboilers. Energy use of the medium-scale parboilers was higher if they did not make use of the charcoal left after the complete combustion of the firewood. One of the reasons for this was the energy losses to the atmosphere, which were apparently very high for the medium-scale parboilers. The convection current through the stove was much higher for the small rural parboilers, leading to higher convection losses. The study reveals the need for optimized energy use for rice parboiling and it shows that in order for rural rice processing to be sustainable, energy sources must be carefully considered and the concept of recycling of fuel biomass should be integrated into the process. Introduction Rice parboiling is a significant step in rice processing. It involves temperature and hydration conditioning of the paddy before removing the hulls and polishing the final product through dehusking and milling. This is an energy-intensive process that requires manual and thermal energy. The thermal energy for this process comes exclusively from firewood, particularly in the northern part of Nigeria, and one of the most preferred sources is 'Kiriya' (Prosopis africana). Kiriya (the local Hausa name) is very important for farming and pastoralist communities in west Africa. The tree's physical and chemical properties make it attractive for local applications that include medicine, construction, energy, and manufacturing of handles for local tools. Its seeds are also used as food, while its succulent leaves and branches provide food for cattle and goats during the dry season. In addition, the trees fix atmospheric nitrogen that improves the soil fertility in the traditional parks and agroforestry system Sustainability of the parboiling process is determined by the processing technique used and the energy source adopted. The scale of the process affects energy efficiency and capacity. The desired temperature for soaking is usually close to but below the gelatinization temperature of the rice
