In two empirical studies, we test the effects of colors perception on marketing phenomena. In two studies, we show that (a) colors (warm vs. cold) interact with the message appeal (heartwarming vs. heartbreaking), and (b) colors, by triggering different emotional reactions to the stimuli, influence consumer behavior by impacting risk-tolerance. [to cite]

Jungsil Choi

Surendra Singh

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ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH 
 
Labovitz School of Business & Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 11 E. Superior Street, Suite 210, Duluth, MN 55802 
 
 
Unanticipated Marketing Effects of Color: Empirical Tests in Two Contexts
Jungsil  Choi, University of Kansas, USA 
Surendra   Singh, University of Kansas, USA 
 
In two empirical studies, we test the effects of colors perception on marketing phenomena. In two studies, we show that (a) colors
(warm vs. cold) interact with the message appeal (heartwarming vs. heartbreaking), and (b) colors, by triggering different emotional
reactions to the stimuli, influence consumer behavior by impacting risk-tolerance.
 
 
[to cite]:
Jungsil Choi and Surendra  Singh (2011) ,"Unanticipated Marketing Effects of Color: Empirical Tests in Two Contexts", in NA -
Advances in Consumer Research Volume 38, eds. Darren W. Dahl, Gita V. Johar, and Stijn M.J. van Osselaer, Duluth, MN :
Association for Consumer Research.
 
[url]:
http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/16306/volumes/v38/NA-38
 
[copyright notice]:
This work is copyrighted by The Association for Consumer Research. For permission to copy or use this work in whole or in
part, please contact the Copyright Clearance Center at http://www.copyright.com/.
806 / Working Papers
References
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43 (February), 28-38.
Unanticipated Marketing Effects of Color: Empirical Tests in Two Contexts
Jungsil Choi, University of Kansas, USA
Surendra Singh, University of Kansas, USA
Extended Abstract
Marketers use colors extensively for a variety of reasons, from attempting to induce positive product attitudes and beliefs(Middlestadt 
1990) to making customers linger longer in malls and have a more positive shopping experience (Bellizzi and Hite 1992). 
Interestingly, humans perceive colors as cold (e.g., blue) and warm (e.g., red, orange) regardless of actual temperature (Stone 1998). 
[Note: A color consists of hue determined by its wavelength, chroma, and value, only hue is commonly used to describe a color]. And, 
cold colors tend to have shorter wavelengths compared to warm colors (Yildirim et al. 2007). Research shows that people feel more 
comfortable if they stay in cold-colored environments when feeling hot and warm-colored environments when feeling cold (Kearney 
1966). Blue-colored workplaces tend to feel colder than warm-colored ones (Stone 1998). It is surmised that different temperature 
perceptions of color occur due to associative learning by associating the colors red and orange with objects such as fire and the sun, and 
associating the color blue with objects such as a deep sea and ice.
Furthermore, colors also influence emotional responses to the stimuli. For instance, warm colors are perceived as arousing and 
exciting, while cold colors as relaxing and calming (Bellizzi et al. 1983, 1992; Crowley 1993; Gorn et al. 2004; Valdez and Mehrabian 
1994; Dijkstra et al. 2008).
Surprisingly, to date no one has investigated the effect of these inherent qualities of color (warm/cold; arousing/calming) on 
marketing communications and on consumer choice behavior. In two studies, we demonstrate that the type of color used affects the 
effectiveness of persuasive messages as well as the degree of risk-taking behavior. More specifically, we show how the type of color 
used in designing a message interacts with the type of message appeal to determine its effectiveness and how the type of color used for 
a stimuli background affects risk-taking behavior in terms of a positive and a negative event. 
Color and Message Effectiveness of a Charitable Appeal
Charitable appeals can be broadly classified as either heartwarming, depicting hope, or heartbreaking, depicting desperation and 
misery (Bendapudi, Singh, Bendapudi (1996). We design two types of flyers soliciting help. A pretest showed that the heartwarming flyer 
aroused emotionally warm feelings of pleasantness and happiness, whereas the heartbreaking flyer aroused emotionally cold feelings of 
guilt, depression and sadness. Reasoning that it is a natural human tendency to find a warm place when feeling cold and a cool place when 
feeling warm, we propose that a heartbreaking (heartwarming) message will be more effective when presented in warm (cold) colors. 
Using a 2 (message type: heartwarming vs. heartbreaking) x 2 (background color of the flyer: blue vs. orange) between subjects 
design, we randomly assigned 129 student participants to the various conditions. We measured informativeness, persuasiveness, and 
intention to donate. The results show an interaction effect of the type of color and the type of message on informativeness (p<0.01). The 
post hoc analysis shows that the heartbreaking (heartwarming) flyer is more informative with orange (blue) background (respectively, 
p<0.05). [Note: In designing stimuli, we control chroma and value but vary the hue]. We also find an interaction effect on persuasiveness 
(p<0.05), such that the heartbreaking flyer with the color orange is more persuasive than that with blue (p<0.1), but the heartwarming 
flyer with blue is not more persuasive than that with orange (p>0.1). 
The results also show an interaction effect on the intention to donate (p<0.01). The post-hoc analysis shows that the heartwarming 
(heartbreaking) flyer with blue (orange) is more effective in enhancing the intention to donate (p<0.1). It appears that the informativeness 
of the message mediates the interaction between the type of color and the type of message on the intention to donate. A color compatible 
with the message enhances the informativeness of the message. Although we did not measure it, it appears that the effect is due to greater 
attention derived to the message processing. The increased informativeness in turn affects the effectiveness of the message. Previous 
studies have shown that perceived sensory quality enhanced by a suitable atmosphere affects buyer’s information and affective state 
Advances in Consumer Research (Volume 38) / 807
(Menon and Kahn 2002; Kotler 1973) and enhances consumers’ attention, purchase intentions and shopping time (Baker, Grewal, & 
Levy 1992; Kotler 1973) in an online shopping mall as well as in a traditional store. 
Effect of Color on Risk-Taking
We hypothesize that warm colors boost the felt excitement associated with risk-taking behavior in a positive event. Likewise cold 
colors dampen tension associated with a negative event. We use Hsee and Weber’s (1999) stimuli to manipulate risk-taking behavior. In 
a 2 (background color: blue and orange) x 2 (event type: a lottery prize vs. a traffic fine) design, 86 students were randomly assigned to 
various conditions. We find the interaction effect between the type of color and the type of event on risk-taking behavior (p<0.05). The 
post-hoc analysis shows that orange, compared to blue, induced more risk-taking in choices (p<0.05) in a positive event but that blue, 
compared to orange, does not significantly increase risk-taking in choices (p=0.144) in a negative event. In a follow-up study, we raise 
the stakes (by increasing the amount of prize and fine) and find that the effect of color on risk-taking behavior vanishes. These results 
demonstrate that color is likely a peripheral cue, and that its effects are attenuated under high involvement conditions. 
These findings have clear implications for managers. Colors, be they in the background of a message or in a store could have 
profound effects on consumers and we need to take this fact into account in all facets of marketing decisions.
References
Ayn E. Crowley (1993), “The Two-Dimensional Impact of Color on Shopping,” Marketing Letters, 4(1), 56-69
Baker, Julie, Michael Levy, and Dhruv Grewal (1992), “An Experimental Approach to Making Retail Store Environmental 
Decisions,” Journal of Retailing, 68(4), 445-460
Bellizzi, Joseph A., Ayn E. Crowley, and Ronald W. Hasty (1983), “The Effects of Color in Store Design,” Journal or Retailing, 59(1), 
21-45
Bellizzi, Joseph A. and Robert E. Hite (1992), “Environmental Color, Consumer Feelings, and Purchase Likelihood,” Psychology and 
Marketing, 9(5), 347-363
Bendapudi, Neeli, Surendra N. Singh, and Venkat Bendapudi (1996) “Enhancing Helping Behavior: An Integrative Framework for 
Promotion Planning,” Journal of Marketing, 60, 33-49
Dijkstra, K, M.E. Pieterse, A.Th.H. Pruyn (2008), “Individual Differences in Reactions towards Color in Simulated Healthcare 
Environments: The Role of Stimulus Screening Ability,” journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(3), 268-277 
Gorn, Gerald J., Amitava Chattopadhyay, Jaideep Sengupta, and Shashank Tripathi (2004), “Waiting for the Web: How Screen Color 
Affects Time Perception,” Journal of Marketing Research, 41(2), 215-225
Hsee, Christopher K. and Elke U. Weber (1999), “Cross-National Differences in Risk Preference and Lay Predictions,” Journal of 
Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 165-179
Kearney, G.E. (1966), “Hue Preferences as a Function of Ambient Temperatures,” Australian Journal of Psychology, 18(3), 271-275
Kotler, Philip (1973), “Atmospherics as a Marketing Tool,” Journal of Retailing, 49(4), 48-64
Menon, Satya and Barbara Kahn (2002), “Cross-Category Effects of Induced Arousal and Pleasure on the Internet Shopping 
Experience,” Journal of Retailing, 78(1), 31-40
Middlestadt, Susan E (1990), “The Effect of Background and Ambient Color on Product Attitudes and Beliefs,” ACR, 17(1), 244-249
Ross, R.T. (1938), “Studies in the Psychology of the Theater,” Psychological Record, 2, 127-190
Stone, Nancy J. (1998), “Task Type, Posters, and Workspace Color on Mood, Satisfaction, and Performance,” Journal of 
Environmental Psychology, 18, 175-185
Valdez, Patricia and Albert Mehrabian (1994), “Effects of Color on Emotions” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 123(4), 394-409
Yildirim, K., A. Akalin-Baskaya, and M.L. Hidayetoglu (2007), “Effects of Indoor Color on Mood and Cognitive Performance,” 
Building and Environment, 42(9), 3233-3240 
Empathy Drivers in the Uncanny Valley
Kristen Smirnov, University of Alberta, Canada
John Pracejus, University of Alberta, Canada
Extended Abstract
For several decades the idea has existed that there exists a state of “almost real” for humanoid figures that causes a strong negative 
reaction in the viewer (Mori, 1970). First suggested by a Japanese roboticist who had noticed the phenomenon in his daily work, Mori’s 
concept of the “Uncanny Valley” went relatively unstudied for decades after its proposal. The past decade has seen a sudden surge of 
interest in the behaviors it describes. Robotics researchers have looked at this idea of poor reactions to something that cannot quite pass 
as real, but the idea has yet to be seriously studied outside their field; furthermore, their focus has been largely on elements of applied 
practicality to physical designs.
While this lack of research is understandable in decades prior, marketers are now studying consumers who are exposed to unreal 
figures in their daily lives. These figures range from entirely virtual to actual humans with a veneer of artificiality over them. Films 
that are entirely created with computer animation software earn hundreds of millions of dollars in the global box office. Photographs 
of models and celebrities are modified to remove imperfections and improve their proportions to a rigid standard of beauty (Reaves et 
al., 2004). Web sites use computer-generated avatars to guide users through the site’s activities (Holzwarth, Janiszewski, & Neumann, 
2006; McGoldrick, Keeling, & Beatty, 2008; Bauer & Neumann, 2005). Some companies choose to pursue the most realistic creations 


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