a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o The human voice is one of the most conspicuous and dimorphic human secondary sexual characteristics; males' low fundamental and formant frequencies barely overlap with females'. Researchers often assert that low male voices are costly signals of phenotypic quality; however, no evidence currently exists linking low voices with indicators of quality (i.e., health or physical condition) during the ages where the larynx develops to adult proportions. In the present study, we examine the relationships between condition, testosterone, and vocal parameters in 91 Bolivian peri-pubertal adolescent males. Condition is operationalized as immune function (based on secretory IgA) and energetic reserves (BMI-for-age residuals from Tsimane-specific growth curves, and body fat percentage), and "masculine" vocal parameters is operationalized as having low fundamental frequency, narrow formant position, and low fundamental-frequency variation. We target peri-pubertal individuals to capture variation in vocal parameters during the canalization period for vocal fold and vocal tract growth. Results indicate that males in better energetic condition have higher testosterone levels and lower voices, controlling for age. Further, testosterone mediates the relationship between condition and a lower voice (i.e., lower fundamental and formant frequencies). We suggest that testosterone plays a key mediating role in the causal pathway linking phenotypic condition to a "masculine" voice. Our results provide support for a costly-signal model of low men's voices
